diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock
index f54c45bfc9..4727d3126a 100644
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
@@ -315,6 +315,7 @@ dependencies = [
  "bitflags 2.6.0",
  "boa_interner",
  "boa_macros",
+ "boa_string",
  "indexmap",
  "num-bigint",
  "rustc-hash 2.0.0",
diff --git a/cli/src/main.rs b/cli/src/main.rs
index c9dbfbba92..d43335df52 100644
--- a/cli/src/main.rs
+++ b/cli/src/main.rs
@@ -190,8 +190,9 @@ where
         let mut parser = boa_parser::Parser::new(Source::from_bytes(src));
         let dump =
             if args.module {
+                let scope = context.realm().scope().clone();
                 let module = parser
-                    .parse_module(context.interner_mut())
+                    .parse_module(&scope, context.interner_mut())
                     .map_err(|e| format!("Uncaught SyntaxError: {e}"))?;
 
                 match arg {
@@ -202,8 +203,9 @@ where
                     DumpFormat::Debug => format!("{module:#?}"),
                 }
             } else {
+                let scope = context.realm().scope().clone();
                 let mut script = parser
-                    .parse_script(context.interner_mut())
+                    .parse_script(&scope, context.interner_mut())
                     .map_err(|e| format!("Uncaught SyntaxError: {e}"))?;
 
                 if args.optimize {
diff --git a/core/ast/Cargo.toml b/core/ast/Cargo.toml
index 3ec560fc3b..53c4beb670 100644
--- a/core/ast/Cargo.toml
+++ b/core/ast/Cargo.toml
@@ -11,12 +11,14 @@ repository.workspace = true
 rust-version.workspace = true
 
 [features]
+annex-b = []
 serde = ["dep:serde", "boa_interner/serde", "bitflags/serde", "num-bigint/serde"]
 arbitrary = ["dep:arbitrary", "boa_interner/arbitrary", "num-bigint/arbitrary"]
 
 [dependencies]
 boa_interner.workspace = true
 boa_macros.workspace = true
+boa_string.workspace = true
 rustc-hash = { workspace = true, features = ["std"] }
 bitflags.workspace = true
 num-bigint.workspace = true
diff --git a/core/ast/src/expression/literal/object.rs b/core/ast/src/expression/literal/object.rs
index 86be5f4d3e..88355918b9 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/expression/literal/object.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/expression/literal/object.rs
@@ -8,8 +8,10 @@ use crate::{
     },
     function::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody},
     join_nodes,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
     pattern::{ObjectPattern, ObjectPatternElement},
     property::{MethodDefinitionKind, PropertyName},
+    scope::FunctionScopes,
     try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
 };
@@ -401,27 +403,35 @@ impl VisitWith for PropertyDefinition {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ObjectMethodDefinition {
-    name: PropertyName,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) name: PropertyName,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
     kind: MethodDefinitionKind,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl ObjectMethodDefinition {
     /// Creates a new object method definition.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: PropertyName,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         kind: MethodDefinitionKind,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
             kind,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -452,6 +462,13 @@ impl ObjectMethodDefinition {
     pub const fn kind(&self) -> MethodDefinitionKind {
         self.kind
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the object method definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ObjectMethodDefinition {
@@ -467,7 +484,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for ObjectMethodDefinition {
         };
         let name = self.name.to_interned_string(interner);
         let parameters = join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref());
-        let body = block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indent_n + 1);
+        let body = block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indent_n + 1);
         format!("{indentation}{prefix}{name}({parameters}) {body},\n")
     }
 }
@@ -479,7 +496,7 @@ impl VisitWith for ObjectMethodDefinition {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name(&self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -488,6 +505,6 @@ impl VisitWith for ObjectMethodDefinition {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name_mut(&mut self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/arrow_function.rs b/core/ast/src/function/arrow_function.rs
index f11ffba5fa..26bf82437f 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/arrow_function.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/arrow_function.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::FunctionScopes;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -23,34 +25,42 @@ use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ArrowFunction {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl ArrowFunction {
     /// Creates a new `ArrowFunctionDecl` AST Expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
-        params: FormalParameterList,
+        parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
-            parameters: params,
+            parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Gets the name of the function declaration.
+    /// Gets the name of the arrow function.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub const fn name(&self) -> Option<Identifier> {
         self.name
     }
 
-    /// Sets the name of the function declaration.
+    /// Sets the name of the arrow function.
     #[inline]
     pub fn set_name(&mut self, name: Option<Identifier>) {
         self.name = name;
@@ -69,6 +79,13 @@ impl ArrowFunction {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Returns the scopes of the arrow function.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ArrowFunction {
@@ -102,7 +119,7 @@ impl VisitWith for ArrowFunction {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -113,6 +130,6 @@ impl VisitWith for ArrowFunction {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/async_arrow_function.rs b/core/ast/src/function/async_arrow_function.rs
index 6e4d19ad98..a6a360dc67 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/async_arrow_function.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/async_arrow_function.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 use std::ops::ControlFlow;
 
 use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::FunctionScopes;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -23,52 +25,67 @@ use boa_interner::{Interner, ToIndentedString};
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct AsyncArrowFunction {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl AsyncArrowFunction {
     /// Creates a new `AsyncArrowFunction` AST Expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
-    /// Gets the name of the function declaration.
+    /// Gets the name of the async arrow function.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub const fn name(&self) -> Option<Identifier> {
         self.name
     }
 
-    /// Sets the name of the function declaration.
+    /// Sets the name of the async arrow function.
     #[inline]
     pub fn set_name(&mut self, name: Option<Identifier>) {
         self.name = name;
     }
 
-    /// Gets the list of parameters of the arrow function.
+    /// Gets the list of parameters of the async arrow function.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub const fn parameters(&self) -> &FormalParameterList {
         &self.parameters
     }
 
-    /// Gets the body of the arrow function.
+    /// Gets the body of the async arrow function.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Returns the scopes of the async arrow function.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for AsyncArrowFunction {
@@ -102,7 +119,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncArrowFunction {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -113,6 +130,6 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncArrowFunction {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/async_function.rs b/core/ast/src/function/async_function.rs
index a90711654b..f80be21962 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/async_function.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/async_function.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,10 @@ use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
 use crate::{
     block_to_string,
     expression::{Expression, Identifier},
-    join_nodes, try_break,
+    join_nodes,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
+    try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     Declaration,
 };
@@ -24,23 +27,27 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
     name: Identifier,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
     /// Creates a new async function declaration.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
-        name: Identifier,
-        parameters: FormalParameterList,
-        body: FunctionBody,
-    ) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(name: Identifier, parameters: FormalParameterList, body: FunctionBody) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -64,6 +71,13 @@ impl AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the async function declaration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
@@ -72,7 +86,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
             "async function {}({}) {}",
             interner.resolve_expect(self.name.sym()),
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         )
     }
 }
@@ -84,7 +98,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(&self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -93,7 +107,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncFunctionDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(&mut self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
 
@@ -117,26 +131,38 @@ impl From<AsyncFunctionDeclaration> for Declaration {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct AsyncFunctionExpression {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
-    has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl AsyncFunctionExpression {
     /// Creates a new async function expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         has_binding_identifier: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
             has_binding_identifier,
+            name_scope: None,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -167,6 +193,20 @@ impl AsyncFunctionExpression {
     pub const fn has_binding_identifier(&self) -> bool {
         self.has_binding_identifier
     }
+
+    /// Gets the name scope of the async function expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.name_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the async function expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for AsyncFunctionExpression {
@@ -210,7 +250,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncFunctionExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -221,6 +261,6 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncFunctionExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/async_generator.rs b/core/ast/src/function/async_generator.rs
index 72614a0bef..b7a046e5fc 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/async_generator.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/async_generator.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
 //! Async Generator Expression
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope};
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -24,23 +26,27 @@ use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
     name: Identifier,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
     /// Creates a new async generator declaration.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
-        name: Identifier,
-        parameters: FormalParameterList,
-        body: FunctionBody,
-    ) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(name: Identifier, parameters: FormalParameterList, body: FunctionBody) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -64,6 +70,13 @@ impl AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the async generator declaration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
@@ -72,7 +85,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
             "async function* {}({}) {}",
             interner.resolve_expect(self.name.sym()),
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         )
     }
 }
@@ -84,7 +97,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(&self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -93,7 +106,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncGeneratorDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(&mut self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
 
@@ -117,26 +130,38 @@ impl From<AsyncGeneratorDeclaration> for Declaration {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct AsyncGeneratorExpression {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
-    has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl AsyncGeneratorExpression {
     /// Creates a new async generator expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         has_binding_identifier: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
             has_binding_identifier,
+            name_scope: None,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -167,6 +192,20 @@ impl AsyncGeneratorExpression {
     pub const fn has_binding_identifier(&self) -> bool {
         self.has_binding_identifier
     }
+
+    /// Gets the name scope of the async generator expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.name_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the async generator expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for AsyncGeneratorExpression {
@@ -180,7 +219,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for AsyncGeneratorExpression {
         buf.push_str(&format!(
             "({}) {}",
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         ));
 
         buf
@@ -203,7 +242,7 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncGeneratorExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -214,6 +253,6 @@ impl VisitWith for AsyncGeneratorExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/class.rs b/core/ast/src/function/class.rs
index 677d8ac86b..162b1b6933 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/class.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/class.rs
@@ -3,7 +3,9 @@ use crate::{
     block_to_string,
     expression::{Expression, Identifier},
     join_nodes,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
     property::{MethodDefinitionKind, PropertyName},
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
     try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     Declaration,
@@ -25,9 +27,12 @@ use std::hash::Hash;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ClassDeclaration {
     name: Identifier,
-    super_ref: Option<Expression>,
+    pub(crate) super_ref: Option<Expression>,
     pub(crate) constructor: Option<FunctionExpression>,
     pub(crate) elements: Box<[ClassElement]>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Scope,
 }
 
 impl ClassDeclaration {
@@ -45,6 +50,7 @@ impl ClassDeclaration {
             super_ref,
             constructor,
             elements,
+            name_scope: Scope::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -75,6 +81,13 @@ impl ClassDeclaration {
     pub const fn elements(&self) -> &[ClassElement] {
         &self.elements
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scope containing the class name binding.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.name_scope
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ClassDeclaration {
@@ -96,7 +109,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for ClassDeclaration {
             buf.push_str(&format!(
                 "{indentation}constructor({}) {}\n",
                 join_nodes(interner, expr.parameters().as_ref()),
-                block_to_string(expr.body().statements(), interner, indent_n + 1)
+                block_to_string(&expr.body.statements, interner, indent_n + 1)
             ));
         }
         for element in &self.elements {
@@ -162,10 +175,12 @@ impl From<ClassDeclaration> for Declaration {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ClassExpression {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    super_ref: Option<Expression>,
+    pub(crate) super_ref: Option<Expression>,
     pub(crate) constructor: Option<FunctionExpression>,
     pub(crate) elements: Box<[ClassElement]>,
-    has_binding_identifier: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl ClassExpression {
@@ -179,12 +194,17 @@ impl ClassExpression {
         elements: Box<[ClassElement]>,
         has_binding_identifier: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let name_scope = if has_binding_identifier {
+            Some(Scope::default())
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
         Self {
             name,
             super_ref,
             constructor,
             elements,
-            has_binding_identifier,
+            name_scope,
         }
     }
 
@@ -215,12 +235,19 @@ impl ClassExpression {
     pub const fn elements(&self) -> &[ClassElement] {
         &self.elements
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scope containing the class name binding if it exists.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.name_scope.as_ref()
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ClassExpression {
     fn to_indented_string(&self, interner: &Interner, indent_n: usize) -> String {
         let mut buf = "class".to_string();
-        if self.has_binding_identifier {
+        if self.name_scope.is_some() {
             if let Some(name) = self.name {
                 buf.push_str(&format!(" {}", interner.resolve_expect(name.sym())));
             }
@@ -241,7 +268,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for ClassExpression {
             buf.push_str(&format!(
                 "{indentation}constructor({}) {}\n",
                 join_nodes(interner, expr.parameters().as_ref()),
-                block_to_string(expr.body().statements(), interner, indent_n + 1)
+                block_to_string(&expr.body.statements, interner, indent_n + 1)
             ));
         }
         for element in &self.elements {
@@ -303,7 +330,41 @@ impl VisitWith for ClassExpression {
 /// Just an alias for [`Script`](crate::Script), since it has the same exact semantics.
 ///
 /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-ClassStaticBlockBody
-type StaticBlockBody = crate::Script;
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct StaticBlockBody {
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
+}
+
+impl StaticBlockBody {
+    /// Creates a new static block body.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(body: FunctionBody) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            body,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the body static block.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn statements(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
+        &self.body
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the static block body.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
+}
 
 /// An element that can be within a class.
 ///
@@ -319,13 +380,13 @@ pub enum ClassElement {
     MethodDefinition(ClassMethodDefinition),
 
     /// A field definition.
-    FieldDefinition(PropertyName, Option<Expression>),
+    FieldDefinition(ClassFieldDefinition),
 
     /// A static field definition, accessible from the class constructor object
-    StaticFieldDefinition(PropertyName, Option<Expression>),
+    StaticFieldDefinition(ClassFieldDefinition),
 
     /// A private field definition, only accessible inside the class declaration.
-    PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateName, Option<Expression>),
+    PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition),
 
     /// A private static field definition, only accessible from static methods and fields inside the
     /// class declaration.
@@ -335,39 +396,145 @@ pub enum ClassElement {
     StaticBlock(StaticBlockBody),
 }
 
+/// A non-private class element field definition.
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-FieldDefinition
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct ClassFieldDefinition {
+    pub(crate) name: PropertyName,
+    pub(crate) field: Option<Expression>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
+}
+
+impl ClassFieldDefinition {
+    /// Creates a new class field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(name: PropertyName, field: Option<Expression>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            field,
+            scope: Scope::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the name of the class field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name(&self) -> &PropertyName {
+        &self.name
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the field of the class field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn field(&self) -> Option<&Expression> {
+        self.field.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the class field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
+}
+
+/// A private class element field definition.
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-FieldDefinition
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct PrivateFieldDefinition {
+    pub(crate) name: PrivateName,
+    pub(crate) field: Option<Expression>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
+}
+
+impl PrivateFieldDefinition {
+    /// Creates a new private field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(name: PrivateName, field: Option<Expression>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            field,
+            scope: Scope::default(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the name of the private field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name(&self) -> &PrivateName {
+        &self.name
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the field of the private field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn field(&self) -> Option<&Expression> {
+        self.field.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the private field definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
+}
+
 impl ToIndentedString for ClassElement {
     fn to_indented_string(&self, interner: &Interner, indent_n: usize) -> String {
         let indentation = "    ".repeat(indent_n + 1);
         match self {
             Self::MethodDefinition(m) => m.to_indented_string(interner, indent_n),
-            Self::FieldDefinition(name, field) => match field {
+            Self::FieldDefinition(field) => match &field.field {
                 Some(expr) => {
                     format!(
                         "{indentation}{} = {};\n",
-                        name.to_interned_string(interner),
+                        field.name.to_interned_string(interner),
                         expr.to_no_indent_string(interner, indent_n + 1)
                     )
                 }
                 None => {
-                    format!("{indentation}{};\n", name.to_interned_string(interner),)
+                    format!(
+                        "{indentation}{};\n",
+                        field.name.to_interned_string(interner),
+                    )
                 }
             },
-            Self::StaticFieldDefinition(name, field) => match field {
+            Self::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => match &field.field {
                 Some(expr) => {
                     format!(
                         "{indentation}static {} = {};\n",
-                        name.to_interned_string(interner),
+                        field.name.to_interned_string(interner),
                         expr.to_no_indent_string(interner, indent_n + 1)
                     )
                 }
                 None => {
                     format!(
                         "{indentation}static {};\n",
-                        name.to_interned_string(interner),
+                        field.name.to_interned_string(interner),
                     )
                 }
             },
-            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, field) => match field {
+            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { name, field, .. }) => match field
+            {
                 Some(expr) => {
                     format!(
                         "{indentation}#{} = {};\n",
@@ -397,10 +564,10 @@ impl ToIndentedString for ClassElement {
                     )
                 }
             },
-            Self::StaticBlock(body) => {
+            Self::StaticBlock(block) => {
                 format!(
                     "{indentation}static {}\n",
-                    block_to_string(body.statements(), interner, indent_n + 1)
+                    block_to_string(&block.body.statements, interner, indent_n + 1)
                 )
             }
         }
@@ -423,26 +590,26 @@ impl VisitWith for ClassElement {
                     }
                 }
                 try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&m.parameters));
-                visitor.visit_script(&m.body)
+                visitor.visit_function_body(&m.body)
             }
-            Self::FieldDefinition(pn, maybe_expr) | Self::StaticFieldDefinition(pn, maybe_expr) => {
-                try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name(pn));
-                if let Some(expr) = maybe_expr {
+            Self::FieldDefinition(field) | Self::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name(&field.name));
+                if let Some(expr) = &field.field {
                     visitor.visit_expression(expr)
                 } else {
                     ControlFlow::Continue(())
                 }
             }
-            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, maybe_expr)
-            | Self::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, maybe_expr) => {
+            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { name, field, .. })
+            | Self::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, field) => {
                 try_break!(visitor.visit_private_name(name));
-                if let Some(expr) = maybe_expr {
+                if let Some(expr) = field {
                     visitor.visit_expression(expr)
                 } else {
                     ControlFlow::Continue(())
                 }
             }
-            Self::StaticBlock(sl) => visitor.visit_script(sl),
+            Self::StaticBlock(block) => visitor.visit_function_body(&block.body),
         }
     }
 
@@ -461,26 +628,26 @@ impl VisitWith for ClassElement {
                     }
                 }
                 try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut m.parameters));
-                visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut m.body)
+                visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut m.body)
             }
-            Self::FieldDefinition(pn, maybe_expr) | Self::StaticFieldDefinition(pn, maybe_expr) => {
-                try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name_mut(pn));
-                if let Some(expr) = maybe_expr {
+            Self::FieldDefinition(field) | Self::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                try_break!(visitor.visit_property_name_mut(&mut field.name));
+                if let Some(expr) = &mut field.field {
                     visitor.visit_expression_mut(expr)
                 } else {
                     ControlFlow::Continue(())
                 }
             }
-            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, maybe_expr)
-            | Self::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, maybe_expr) => {
+            Self::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { name, field, .. })
+            | Self::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, field) => {
                 try_break!(visitor.visit_private_name_mut(name));
-                if let Some(expr) = maybe_expr {
+                if let Some(expr) = field {
                     visitor.visit_expression_mut(expr)
                 } else {
                     ControlFlow::Continue(())
                 }
             }
-            Self::StaticBlock(sl) => visitor.visit_script_mut(sl),
+            Self::StaticBlock(block) => visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut block.body),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -499,29 +666,37 @@ impl VisitWith for ClassElement {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ClassMethodDefinition {
     name: ClassElementName,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
     kind: MethodDefinitionKind,
     is_static: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl ClassMethodDefinition {
     /// Creates a new class method definition.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: ClassElementName,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         kind: MethodDefinitionKind,
         is_static: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
             kind,
             is_static,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -566,6 +741,13 @@ impl ClassMethodDefinition {
     pub const fn is_private(&self) -> bool {
         self.name.is_private()
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the class method definition.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ClassMethodDefinition {
@@ -587,7 +769,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for ClassMethodDefinition {
         };
         let name = self.name.to_interned_string(interner);
         let parameters = join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref());
-        let body = block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indent_n + 1);
+        let body = block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indent_n + 1);
         format!("{indentation}{prefix}{name}({parameters}) {body}\n")
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/generator.rs b/core/ast/src/function/generator.rs
index 3c340b87a0..7911b922a6 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/generator.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/generator.rs
@@ -2,7 +2,10 @@ use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
 use crate::{
     block_to_string,
     expression::{Expression, Identifier},
-    join_nodes, try_break,
+    join_nodes,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
+    try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     Declaration,
 };
@@ -22,23 +25,27 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct GeneratorDeclaration {
     name: Identifier,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl GeneratorDeclaration {
     /// Creates a new generator declaration.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
-        name: Identifier,
-        parameters: FormalParameterList,
-        body: FunctionBody,
-    ) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(name: Identifier, parameters: FormalParameterList, body: FunctionBody) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -62,6 +69,13 @@ impl GeneratorDeclaration {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Returns the scopes of the generator declaration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for GeneratorDeclaration {
@@ -70,7 +84,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for GeneratorDeclaration {
             "function* {}({}) {}",
             interner.resolve_expect(self.name.sym()),
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         )
     }
 }
@@ -82,7 +96,7 @@ impl VisitWith for GeneratorDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(&self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -91,7 +105,7 @@ impl VisitWith for GeneratorDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(&mut self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
 
@@ -115,26 +129,38 @@ impl From<GeneratorDeclaration> for Declaration {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct GeneratorExpression {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
-    has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl GeneratorExpression {
     /// Creates a new generator expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         has_binding_identifier: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
             has_binding_identifier,
+            name_scope: None,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -165,6 +191,20 @@ impl GeneratorExpression {
     pub const fn has_binding_identifier(&self) -> bool {
         self.has_binding_identifier
     }
+
+    /// Gets the name scope of the generator expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.name_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the generator expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for GeneratorExpression {
@@ -178,7 +218,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for GeneratorExpression {
         buf.push_str(&format!(
             "({}) {}",
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         ));
 
         buf
@@ -201,7 +241,7 @@ impl VisitWith for GeneratorExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -212,6 +252,6 @@ impl VisitWith for GeneratorExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/mod.rs b/core/ast/src/function/mod.rs
index d245572f97..2cf0eb26da 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/mod.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/mod.rs
@@ -32,27 +32,107 @@ mod generator;
 mod ordinary_function;
 mod parameters;
 
+use std::ops::ControlFlow;
+
 pub use arrow_function::ArrowFunction;
 pub use async_arrow_function::AsyncArrowFunction;
 pub use async_function::{AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression};
 pub use async_generator::{AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression};
+use boa_interner::{Interner, ToIndentedString};
 pub use class::{
-    ClassDeclaration, ClassElement, ClassElementName, ClassExpression, ClassMethodDefinition,
-    PrivateName,
+    ClassDeclaration, ClassElement, ClassElementName, ClassExpression, ClassFieldDefinition,
+    ClassMethodDefinition, PrivateFieldDefinition, PrivateName, StaticBlockBody,
 };
 pub use generator::{GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression};
 pub use ordinary_function::{FunctionDeclaration, FunctionExpression};
 pub use parameters::{FormalParameter, FormalParameterList, FormalParameterListFlags};
 
-use crate::Script;
+use crate::{
+    try_break,
+    visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
+    StatementList, StatementListItem,
+};
 
 /// A Function body.
 ///
-/// Since [`Script`] and `FunctionBody` has the same semantics, this is currently
+/// Since `Script` and `FunctionBody` have the same semantics, this is currently
 /// only an alias of the former.
 ///
 /// More information:
 ///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
 ///
 /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-FunctionBody
-pub type FunctionBody = Script;
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct FunctionBody {
+    pub(crate) statements: StatementList,
+}
+
+impl FunctionBody {
+    /// Creates a new `FunctionBody` AST node.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new<S>(statements: S, strict: bool) -> Self
+    where
+        S: Into<Box<[StatementListItem]>>,
+    {
+        Self {
+            statements: StatementList::new(statements.into(), strict),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the list of statements.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn statements(&self) -> &[StatementListItem] {
+        self.statements.statements()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the statement list.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn statement_list(&self) -> &StatementList {
+        &self.statements
+    }
+
+    /// Get the strict mode.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn strict(&self) -> bool {
+        self.statements.strict()
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<StatementList> for FunctionBody {
+    fn from(statements: StatementList) -> Self {
+        Self { statements }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ToIndentedString for FunctionBody {
+    fn to_indented_string(&self, interner: &Interner, indentation: usize) -> String {
+        self.statements.to_indented_string(interner, indentation)
+    }
+}
+
+impl VisitWith for FunctionBody {
+    fn visit_with<'a, V>(&'a self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
+    where
+        V: Visitor<'a>,
+    {
+        for statement in &*self.statements {
+            try_break!(visitor.visit_statement_list_item(statement));
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
+    where
+        V: VisitorMut<'a>,
+    {
+        for statement in &mut *self.statements.statements {
+            try_break!(visitor.visit_statement_list_item_mut(statement));
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+}
diff --git a/core/ast/src/function/ordinary_function.rs b/core/ast/src/function/ordinary_function.rs
index 9ecaa36f43..84f8c4c6e3 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/function/ordinary_function.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/function/ordinary_function.rs
@@ -2,7 +2,11 @@ use super::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
 use crate::{
     block_to_string,
     expression::{Expression, Identifier},
-    join_nodes, try_break,
+    join_nodes,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
+    scope_analyzer::{analyze_binding_escapes, collect_bindings},
+    try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     Declaration,
 };
@@ -22,23 +26,27 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct FunctionDeclaration {
     name: Identifier,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl FunctionDeclaration {
     /// Creates a new function declaration.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
-        name: Identifier,
-        parameters: FormalParameterList,
-        body: FunctionBody,
-    ) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(name: Identifier, parameters: FormalParameterList, body: FunctionBody) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -62,6 +70,13 @@ impl FunctionDeclaration {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &FunctionBody {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the function declaration.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for FunctionDeclaration {
@@ -70,7 +85,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for FunctionDeclaration {
             "function {}({}) {}",
             interner.resolve_expect(self.name.sym()),
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         )
     }
 }
@@ -82,7 +97,7 @@ impl VisitWith for FunctionDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(&self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -91,7 +106,7 @@ impl VisitWith for FunctionDeclaration {
     {
         try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(&mut self.name));
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
 
@@ -115,26 +130,38 @@ impl From<FunctionDeclaration> for Declaration {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct FunctionExpression {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
-    parameters: FormalParameterList,
-    body: FunctionBody,
-    has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) parameters: FormalParameterList,
+    pub(crate) body: FunctionBody,
+    pub(crate) has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scopes: FunctionScopes,
 }
 
 impl FunctionExpression {
     /// Creates a new function expression.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(
+    pub fn new(
         name: Option<Identifier>,
         parameters: FormalParameterList,
         body: FunctionBody,
         has_binding_identifier: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&parameters, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
             has_binding_identifier,
+            name_scope: None,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scopes: FunctionScopes::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -165,6 +192,28 @@ impl FunctionExpression {
     pub const fn has_binding_identifier(&self) -> bool {
         self.has_binding_identifier
     }
+
+    /// Gets the name scope of the function expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.name_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the scopes of the function expression.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scopes(&self) -> &FunctionScopes {
+        &self.scopes
+    }
+
+    /// Analyze the scope of the function expression.
+    pub fn analyze_scope(&mut self, strict: bool, scope: &Scope, interner: &Interner) -> bool {
+        if !collect_bindings(self, strict, false, scope, interner) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        analyze_binding_escapes(self, false, scope.clone(), interner)
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for FunctionExpression {
@@ -178,7 +227,7 @@ impl ToIndentedString for FunctionExpression {
         buf.push_str(&format!(
             "({}) {}",
             join_nodes(interner, self.parameters.as_ref()),
-            block_to_string(self.body.statements(), interner, indentation)
+            block_to_string(&self.body.statements, interner, indentation)
         ));
 
         buf
@@ -201,7 +250,7 @@ impl VisitWith for FunctionExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list(&self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script(&self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body(&self.body)
     }
 
     fn visit_with_mut<'a, V>(&'a mut self, visitor: &mut V) -> ControlFlow<V::BreakTy>
@@ -212,6 +261,6 @@ impl VisitWith for FunctionExpression {
             try_break!(visitor.visit_identifier_mut(ident));
         }
         try_break!(visitor.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(&mut self.parameters));
-        visitor.visit_script_mut(&mut self.body)
+        visitor.visit_function_body_mut(&mut self.body)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/lib.rs b/core/ast/src/lib.rs
index e2b19c93df..edaafdc570 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/lib.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/lib.rs
@@ -37,10 +37,14 @@ pub mod keyword;
 pub mod operations;
 pub mod pattern;
 pub mod property;
+pub mod scope;
+pub mod scope_analyzer;
 pub mod statement;
 pub mod visitor;
 
-use boa_interner::{Interner, ToIndentedString, ToInternedString};
+use boa_interner::{Interner, Sym, ToIndentedString, ToInternedString};
+use boa_string::{JsStr, JsString};
+use expression::Identifier;
 
 pub use self::{
     declaration::Declaration,
@@ -105,3 +109,28 @@ impl ToStringEscaped for [u16] {
             .collect()
     }
 }
+
+pub(crate) trait ToJsString {
+    fn to_js_string(&self, interner: &Interner) -> JsString;
+}
+
+impl ToJsString for Sym {
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    fn to_js_string(&self, interner: &Interner) -> JsString {
+        // TODO: Identify latin1 encodeable strings during parsing to avoid this check.
+        let string = interner.resolve_expect(*self).utf16();
+        for c in string {
+            if u8::try_from(*c).is_err() {
+                return JsString::from(string);
+            }
+        }
+        let string = string.iter().map(|c| *c as u8).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        JsString::from(JsStr::latin1(&string))
+    }
+}
+
+impl ToJsString for Identifier {
+    fn to_js_string(&self, interner: &Interner) -> JsString {
+        self.sym().to_js_string(interner)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/core/ast/src/operations.rs b/core/ast/src/operations.rs
index f74c6ac8ba..a4f683b85f 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/operations.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/operations.rs
@@ -16,17 +16,17 @@ use crate::{
         access::{PrivatePropertyAccess, SuperPropertyAccess},
         literal::PropertyDefinition,
         operator::BinaryInPrivate,
-        Await, Identifier, OptionalOperationKind, SuperCall, Yield,
+        Await, Call, Identifier, OptionalOperationKind, SuperCall, Yield,
     },
     function::{
         ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression,
         AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, ClassDeclaration, ClassElement,
-        ClassElementName, ClassExpression, FormalParameterList, FunctionDeclaration,
-        FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression,
+        ClassElementName, ClassExpression, FormalParameterList, FunctionBody, FunctionDeclaration,
+        FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression, PrivateFieldDefinition,
     },
     statement::{
         iteration::{ForLoopInitializer, IterableLoopInitializer},
-        LabelledItem,
+        LabelledItem, With,
     },
     try_break,
     visitor::{NodeRef, VisitWith, Visitor},
@@ -61,6 +61,8 @@ pub enum ContainsSymbol {
     MethodDefinition,
     /// The `BindingIdentifier` "eval" or "arguments".
     EvalOrArguments,
+    /// A direct call to `eval`.
+    DirectEval,
 }
 
 /// Returns `true` if the node contains the given symbol.
@@ -80,6 +82,26 @@ where
     impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for ContainsVisitor {
         type BreakTy = ();
 
+        fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+            try_break!(node.expression().visit_with(self));
+            node.statement().visit_with(self)
+        }
+
+        fn visit_call(&mut self, node: &'ast Call) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+            if self.0 == ContainsSymbol::DirectEval {
+                if let Expression::Identifier(ident) = node.function().flatten() {
+                    if ident.sym() == Sym::EVAL {
+                        return ControlFlow::Break(());
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            try_break!(node.function().visit_with(self));
+            for arg in node.args() {
+                try_break!(arg.visit_with(self));
+            }
+            ControlFlow::Continue(())
+        }
+
         fn visit_identifier(&mut self, node: &'ast Identifier) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
             if self.0 == ContainsSymbol::EvalOrArguments
                 && (node.sym() == Sym::EVAL || node.sym() == Sym::ARGUMENTS)
@@ -179,14 +201,18 @@ where
         fn visit_class_element(&mut self, node: &'ast ClassElement) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
             match node {
                 ClassElement::MethodDefinition(m) => {
+                    if self.0 == ContainsSymbol::DirectEval {
+                        return ControlFlow::Continue(());
+                    }
+
                     if let ClassElementName::PropertyName(name) = m.name() {
                         name.visit_with(self)
                     } else {
                         ControlFlow::Continue(())
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, _)
-                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, _) => name.visit_with(self),
+                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
+                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => field.name.visit_with(self),
                 _ => ControlFlow::Continue(()),
             }
         }
@@ -196,6 +222,10 @@ where
             node: &'ast PropertyDefinition,
         ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
             if let PropertyDefinition::MethodDefinition(m) = node {
+                if self.0 == ContainsSymbol::DirectEval {
+                    return ControlFlow::Continue(());
+                }
+
                 if self.0 == ContainsSymbol::MethodDefinition {
                     return ControlFlow::Break(());
                 }
@@ -215,6 +245,7 @@ where
                 ContainsSymbol::SuperCall,
                 ContainsSymbol::Super,
                 ContainsSymbol::This,
+                ContainsSymbol::DirectEval,
             ]
             .contains(&self.0)
             {
@@ -234,6 +265,7 @@ where
                 ContainsSymbol::SuperCall,
                 ContainsSymbol::Super,
                 ContainsSymbol::This,
+                ContainsSymbol::DirectEval,
             ]
             .contains(&self.0)
             {
@@ -401,7 +433,7 @@ where
 /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-static-semantics-hasdirectsuper
 #[must_use]
 #[inline]
-pub fn has_direct_super_new(params: &FormalParameterList, body: &Script) -> bool {
+pub fn has_direct_super_new(params: &FormalParameterList, body: &FunctionBody) -> bool {
     contains(params, ContainsSymbol::SuperCall) || contains(body, ContainsSymbol::SuperCall)
 }
 
@@ -600,6 +632,11 @@ impl<'ast, T: IdentList> Visitor<'ast> for LexicallyDeclaredNamesVisitor<'_, T>
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
 
+    fn visit_function_body(&mut self, node: &'ast FunctionBody) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        top_level_lexicals(node.statement_list(), self.0);
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
     fn visit_module_item(&mut self, node: &'ast ModuleItem) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         match node {
             // ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration
@@ -655,72 +692,72 @@ impl<'ast, T: IdentList> Visitor<'ast> for LexicallyDeclaredNamesVisitor<'_, T>
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast FunctionExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_function_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast FunctionDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_function_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncFunctionExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_function_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_generator_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast GeneratorExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_generator_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast GeneratorDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_generator_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncGeneratorExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_generator_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_arrow_function(&mut self, node: &'ast ArrowFunction) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_arrow_function(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncArrowFunction,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_class_element(&mut self, node: &'ast ClassElement) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        if let ClassElement::StaticBlock(body) = node {
-            self.visit_script(body);
+        if let ClassElement::StaticBlock(block) = node {
+            self.visit_function_body(&block.body);
         }
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
@@ -787,6 +824,11 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for VarDeclaredNamesVisitor<'_> {
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
 
+    fn visit_function_body(&mut self, node: &'ast FunctionBody) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        top_level_vars(node.statement_list(), self.0);
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
     fn visit_module_item(&mut self, node: &'ast ModuleItem) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         match node {
             // ModuleItem : ImportDeclaration
@@ -898,7 +940,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for VarDeclaredNamesVisitor<'_> {
         self.visit(node.body())
     }
 
-    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast crate::statement::With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         self.visit(node.statement())
     }
 
@@ -933,61 +975,61 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for VarDeclaredNamesVisitor<'_> {
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast FunctionExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_function_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast FunctionDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_function_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncFunctionExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_function_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_generator_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast GeneratorExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_generator_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast GeneratorDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_generator_expression(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncGeneratorExpression,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_async_generator_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
     ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        self.visit_script(node.body())
+        self.visit_function_body(node.body())
     }
 
     fn visit_class_element(&mut self, node: &'ast ClassElement) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
-        if let ClassElement::StaticBlock(body) = node {
-            self.visit_script(body);
+        if let ClassElement::StaticBlock(block) = node {
+            self.visit_function_body(&block.body);
         }
         node.visit_with(self)
     }
@@ -1138,7 +1180,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AllPrivateIdentifiersValidVisitor {
                         names.push(name.description());
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, _)
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { name, .. })
                 | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, _) => {
                     names.push(name.description());
                 }
@@ -1161,21 +1203,21 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AllPrivateIdentifiersValidVisitor {
                     try_break!(visitor.visit(m.parameters()));
                     try_break!(visitor.visit(m.body()));
                 }
-                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, expression)
-                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, expression) => {
-                    try_break!(visitor.visit(name));
-                    if let Some(expression) = expression {
+                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
+                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    try_break!(visitor.visit(&field.name));
+                    if let Some(expression) = &field.field {
                         try_break!(visitor.visit(expression));
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(_, expression)
-                | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, expression) => {
-                    if let Some(expression) = expression {
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { field, .. })
+                | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, field) => {
+                    if let Some(expression) = field {
                         try_break!(visitor.visit(expression));
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::StaticBlock(statement_list) => {
-                    try_break!(visitor.visit(statement_list));
+                ClassElement::StaticBlock(block) => {
+                    try_break!(visitor.visit(&block.body));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -1199,7 +1241,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AllPrivateIdentifiersValidVisitor {
                         names.push(name.description());
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, _)
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { name, .. })
                 | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, _) => {
                     names.push(name.description());
                 }
@@ -1222,21 +1264,21 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AllPrivateIdentifiersValidVisitor {
                     try_break!(visitor.visit(m.parameters()));
                     try_break!(visitor.visit(m.body()));
                 }
-                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, expression)
-                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, expression) => {
-                    try_break!(visitor.visit(name));
-                    if let Some(expression) = expression {
+                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
+                | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    try_break!(visitor.visit(&field.name));
+                    if let Some(expression) = &field.field {
                         try_break!(visitor.visit(expression));
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(_, expression)
-                | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, expression) => {
-                    if let Some(expression) = expression {
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(PrivateFieldDefinition { field, .. })
+                | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, field) => {
+                    if let Some(expression) = field {
                         try_break!(visitor.visit(expression));
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::StaticBlock(statement_list) => {
-                    try_break!(visitor.visit(statement_list));
+                ClassElement::StaticBlock(block) => {
+                    try_break!(visitor.visit(&block.body));
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -1755,6 +1797,12 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for LexicallyScopedDeclarationsVisitor<'_, 'ast> {
         TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarationsVisitor(self.0).visit_statement_list(node.statements())
     }
 
+    fn visit_function_body(&mut self, node: &'ast FunctionBody) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        // 1. Return TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.
+        TopLevelLexicallyScopedDeclarationsVisitor(self.0)
+            .visit_statement_list(node.statement_list())
+    }
+
     fn visit_export_declaration(
         &mut self,
         node: &'ast ExportDeclaration,
@@ -1974,6 +2022,11 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for VarScopedDeclarationsVisitor<'_> {
         TopLevelVarScopedDeclarationsVisitor(self.0).visit_statement_list(node.statements())
     }
 
+    fn visit_function_body(&mut self, node: &'ast FunctionBody) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        // 1. Return TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations of StatementList.
+        TopLevelVarScopedDeclarationsVisitor(self.0).visit_statement_list(node.statement_list())
+    }
+
     fn visit_statement(&mut self, node: &'ast Statement) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         match node {
             Statement::Block(s) => self.visit(s),
@@ -2074,7 +2127,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for VarScopedDeclarationsVisitor<'_> {
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
 
-    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast crate::statement::With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         self.visit(node.statement());
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
@@ -2342,7 +2395,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AnnexBFunctionDeclarationNamesVisitor<'_> {
         self.visit(node.body());
 
         if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(node)) = node.init() {
-            let bound_names = bound_names(node);
+            let bound_names = bound_names(&node.declaration);
             self.0.retain(|name| !bound_names.contains(name));
         }
 
@@ -2395,7 +2448,7 @@ impl<'ast> Visitor<'ast> for AnnexBFunctionDeclarationNamesVisitor<'_> {
         ControlFlow::Continue(())
     }
 
-    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast crate::statement::With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+    fn visit_with(&mut self, node: &'ast With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
         self.visit(node.statement())
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/scope.rs b/core/ast/src/scope.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..621189ee79
--- /dev/null
+++ b/core/ast/src/scope.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,529 @@
+//! This module implements the binding scope for various AST nodes.
+//!
+//! Scopes are used to track the bindings of identifiers in the AST.
+
+use boa_string::JsString;
+use rustc_hash::FxHashMap;
+use std::{cell::RefCell, fmt::Debug, rc::Rc};
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[allow(clippy::struct_excessive_bools)]
+struct Binding {
+    index: u32,
+    mutable: bool,
+    lex: bool,
+    strict: bool,
+    escapes: bool,
+}
+
+/// A scope maps bound identifiers to their binding positions.
+///
+/// It can be either a global scope or a function scope or a declarative scope.
+#[derive(Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Scope {
+    inner: Rc<Inner>,
+}
+
+impl Debug for Scope {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("Scope")
+            .field("outer", &self.inner.outer)
+            .field("index", &self.inner.index)
+            .field("bindings", &self.inner.bindings)
+            .field("function", &self.inner.function)
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for Scope {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new_global()
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "arbitrary")]
+impl<'a> arbitrary::Arbitrary<'a> for Scope {
+    fn arbitrary(_u: &mut arbitrary::Unstructured<'a>) -> arbitrary::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self::new_global())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub(crate) struct Inner {
+    outer: Option<Scope>,
+    index: u32,
+    bindings: RefCell<FxHashMap<JsString, Binding>>,
+    function: bool,
+}
+
+impl Scope {
+    /// Creates a new global scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new_global() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            inner: Rc::new(Inner {
+                outer: None,
+                index: 0,
+                bindings: RefCell::default(),
+                function: true,
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a new scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(parent: Self, function: bool) -> Self {
+        let index = parent.inner.index + 1;
+        Self {
+            inner: Rc::new(Inner {
+                outer: Some(parent),
+                index,
+                bindings: RefCell::default(),
+                function,
+            }),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Marks all bindings in this scope as escaping.
+    pub fn escape_all_bindings(&self) {
+        for binding in self.inner.bindings.borrow_mut().values_mut() {
+            binding.escapes = true;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the scope has a lexical binding with the given name.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn has_lex_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> bool {
+        self.inner
+            .bindings
+            .borrow()
+            .get(name)
+            .map_or(false, |binding| binding.lex)
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the scope has a binding with the given name.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn has_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> bool {
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow().contains_key(name)
+    }
+
+    /// Get the binding locator for a binding with the given name.
+    /// Fall back to the global scope if the binding is not found.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_identifier_reference(&self, name: JsString) -> IdentifierReference {
+        if let Some(binding) = self.inner.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
+            IdentifierReference::new(
+                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.inner.index, binding.index),
+                binding.lex,
+                binding.escapes,
+            )
+        } else if let Some(outer) = &self.inner.outer {
+            outer.get_identifier_reference(name)
+        } else {
+            IdentifierReference::new(BindingLocator::global(name), false, true)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the number of bindings in this scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    pub fn num_bindings(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow().len() as u32
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the index of this scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn scope_index(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.inner.index
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the scope is a function scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_function(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inner.function
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the scope is a global scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_global(&self) -> bool {
+        self.inner.outer.is_none()
+    }
+
+    /// Get the locator for a binding name.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> Option<BindingLocator> {
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow().get(name).map(|binding| {
+            BindingLocator::declarative(name.clone(), self.inner.index, binding.index)
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Get the locator for a binding name.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn get_binding_reference(&self, name: &JsString) -> Option<IdentifierReference> {
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow().get(name).map(|binding| {
+            IdentifierReference::new(
+                BindingLocator::declarative(name.clone(), self.inner.index, binding.index),
+                binding.lex,
+                binding.escapes,
+            )
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Simulate a binding access.
+    ///
+    /// - If the binding access crosses a function border, the binding is marked as escaping.
+    /// - If the binding access is in an eval or with scope, the binding is marked as escaping.
+    pub fn access_binding(&self, name: &JsString, eval_or_with: bool) {
+        let mut crossed_function_border = false;
+        let mut current = self;
+        loop {
+            if let Some(binding) = current.inner.bindings.borrow_mut().get_mut(name) {
+                if crossed_function_border || eval_or_with {
+                    binding.escapes = true;
+                }
+                return;
+            }
+            if let Some(outer) = &current.inner.outer {
+                if current.inner.function {
+                    crossed_function_border = true;
+                }
+                current = outer;
+            } else {
+                return;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a mutable binding.
+    #[must_use]
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    pub fn create_mutable_binding(&self, name: JsString, function_scope: bool) -> BindingLocator {
+        let binding_index = self.inner.bindings.borrow().len() as u32;
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow_mut().insert(
+            name.clone(),
+            Binding {
+                index: binding_index,
+                mutable: true,
+                lex: !function_scope,
+                strict: false,
+                escapes: self.is_global(),
+            },
+        );
+        BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.inner.index, binding_index)
+    }
+
+    /// Crate an immutable binding.
+    #[allow(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
+    pub(crate) fn create_immutable_binding(&self, name: JsString, strict: bool) {
+        let binding_index = self.inner.bindings.borrow().len() as u32;
+        self.inner.bindings.borrow_mut().insert(
+            name,
+            Binding {
+                index: binding_index,
+                mutable: false,
+                lex: true,
+                strict,
+                escapes: self.is_global(),
+            },
+        );
+    }
+
+    /// Return the binding locator for a mutable binding.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    /// Returns an error if the binding is not mutable or does not exist.
+    pub fn set_mutable_binding(
+        &self,
+        name: JsString,
+    ) -> Result<IdentifierReference, BindingLocatorError> {
+        Ok(match self.inner.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
+            Some(binding) if binding.mutable => IdentifierReference::new(
+                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.inner.index, binding.index),
+                binding.lex,
+                binding.escapes,
+            ),
+            Some(binding) if binding.strict => return Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable),
+            Some(_) => return Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent),
+            None => self.inner.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
+                || {
+                    Ok(IdentifierReference::new(
+                        BindingLocator::global(name.clone()),
+                        false,
+                        true,
+                    ))
+                },
+                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()),
+            )?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
+    /// Return the binding locator for a set operation on an existing var binding.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    /// Returns an error if the binding is not mutable or does not exist.
+    pub fn set_mutable_binding_var(
+        &self,
+        name: JsString,
+    ) -> Result<IdentifierReference, BindingLocatorError> {
+        if !self.is_function() {
+            return self.inner.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
+                || {
+                    Ok(IdentifierReference::new(
+                        BindingLocator::global(name.clone()),
+                        false,
+                        true,
+                    ))
+                },
+                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone()),
+            );
+        }
+
+        Ok(match self.inner.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
+            Some(binding) if binding.mutable => IdentifierReference::new(
+                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.inner.index, binding.index),
+                binding.lex,
+                binding.escapes,
+            ),
+            Some(binding) if binding.strict => return Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable),
+            Some(_) => return Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent),
+            None => self.inner.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
+                || {
+                    Ok(IdentifierReference::new(
+                        BindingLocator::global(name.clone()),
+                        false,
+                        true,
+                    ))
+                },
+                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone()),
+            )?,
+        })
+    }
+
+    /// Gets the outer scope of this scope.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn outer(&self) -> Option<Self> {
+        self.inner.outer.clone()
+    }
+}
+
+/// A reference to an identifier in a scope.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+pub struct IdentifierReference {
+    locator: BindingLocator,
+    lexical: bool,
+    escapes: bool,
+}
+
+impl IdentifierReference {
+    /// Create a new identifier reference.
+    pub(crate) fn new(locator: BindingLocator, lexical: bool, escapes: bool) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            locator,
+            lexical,
+            escapes,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the binding locator for this identifier reference.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn locator(&self) -> BindingLocator {
+        self.locator.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns if the binding can be function local.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn local(&self) -> bool {
+        self.locator.scope > 0 && !self.escapes
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this identifier reference is lexical.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn is_lexical(&self) -> bool {
+        self.lexical
+    }
+}
+
+/// A binding locator contains all information about a binding that is needed to resolve it at runtime.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, Hash, PartialEq)]
+pub struct BindingLocator {
+    /// Name of the binding.
+    name: JsString,
+
+    /// Scope of the binding.
+    /// - 0: Global object
+    /// - 1: Global declarative scope
+    /// - n: Stack scope at index n - 2
+    scope: u32,
+
+    /// Index of the binding in the scope.
+    binding_index: u32,
+}
+
+impl BindingLocator {
+    /// Creates a new declarative binding locator that has knows indices.
+    pub(crate) const fn declarative(name: JsString, scope_index: u32, binding_index: u32) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            scope: scope_index + 1,
+            binding_index,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Creates a binding locator that indicates that the binding is on the global object.
+    pub(super) const fn global(name: JsString) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            name,
+            scope: 0,
+            binding_index: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the name of the binding.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn name(&self) -> &JsString {
+        &self.name
+    }
+
+    /// Returns if the binding is located on the global object.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn is_global(&self) -> bool {
+        self.scope == 0
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the binding.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn scope(&self) -> BindingLocatorScope {
+        match self.scope {
+            0 => BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject,
+            1 => BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative,
+            n => BindingLocatorScope::Stack(n - 2),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the scope of the binding.
+    pub fn set_scope(&mut self, scope: BindingLocatorScope) {
+        self.scope = match scope {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => 0,
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => 1,
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => index + 2,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the binding index of the binding.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn binding_index(&self) -> u32 {
+        self.binding_index
+    }
+
+    /// Sets the binding index of the binding.
+    pub fn set_binding_index(&mut self, index: u32) {
+        self.binding_index = index;
+    }
+}
+
+/// Action that is returned when a fallible binding operation.
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
+pub enum BindingLocatorError {
+    /// Trying to mutate immutable binding,
+    MutateImmutable,
+
+    /// Indicates that any action is silently ignored.
+    Silent,
+}
+
+/// The scope in which a binding is located.
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
+pub enum BindingLocatorScope {
+    /// The binding is located on the global object.
+    GlobalObject,
+
+    /// The binding is located in the global declarative scope.
+    GlobalDeclarative,
+
+    /// The binding is located in the scope stack at the given index.
+    Stack(u32),
+}
+
+/// A collection of function scopes.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct FunctionScopes {
+    pub(crate) function_scope: Scope,
+    pub(crate) parameters_eval_scope: Option<Scope>,
+    pub(crate) parameters_scope: Option<Scope>,
+    pub(crate) lexical_scope: Option<Scope>,
+}
+
+impl FunctionScopes {
+    /// Returns the function scope for this function.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn function_scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.function_scope
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the parameters eval scope for this function.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn parameters_eval_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.parameters_eval_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the parameters scope for this function.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn parameters_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.parameters_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the lexical scope for this function.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn lexical_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.lexical_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the effective paramter scope for this function.
+    pub(crate) fn parameter_scope(&self) -> Scope {
+        if let Some(parameters_eval_scope) = &self.parameters_eval_scope {
+            return parameters_eval_scope.clone();
+        }
+        self.function_scope.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the effective body scope for this function.
+    pub(crate) fn body_scope(&self) -> Scope {
+        if let Some(lexical_scope) = &self.lexical_scope {
+            return lexical_scope.clone();
+        }
+        if let Some(parameters_scope) = &self.parameters_scope {
+            return parameters_scope.clone();
+        }
+        if let Some(parameters_eval_scope) = &self.parameters_eval_scope {
+            return parameters_eval_scope.clone();
+        }
+        self.function_scope.clone()
+    }
+
+    /// Marks all bindings in all scopes as escaping.
+    pub(crate) fn escape_all_bindings(&self) {
+        self.function_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        if let Some(parameters_eval_scope) = &self.parameters_eval_scope {
+            parameters_eval_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+        if let Some(parameters_scope) = &self.parameters_scope {
+            parameters_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+        if let Some(lexical_scope) = &self.lexical_scope {
+            lexical_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(feature = "arbitrary")]
+impl<'a> arbitrary::Arbitrary<'a> for FunctionScopes {
+    fn arbitrary(_u: &mut arbitrary::Unstructured<'a>) -> arbitrary::Result<Self> {
+        Ok(Self {
+            function_scope: Scope::new_global(),
+            parameters_eval_scope: None,
+            parameters_scope: None,
+            lexical_scope: None,
+        })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/core/ast/src/scope_analyzer.rs b/core/ast/src/scope_analyzer.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..e40534e67a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/core/ast/src/scope_analyzer.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1992 @@
+//! This module implements the scope analysis for the AST.
+//!
+//! The scope analysis is done in two steps:
+//! 1. Collecting bindings: This step collects all the bindings in the AST and fills the scopes with them.
+//! 2. Analyzing binding escapes: This step analyzes if the bindings escape their function scopes.
+
+#[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
+use crate::operations::annex_b_function_declarations_names;
+use crate::{
+    declaration::{Binding, ExportDeclaration, LexicalDeclaration, VariableList},
+    expression::{literal::ObjectMethodDefinition, Identifier},
+    function::{
+        ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression,
+        AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, ClassDeclaration, ClassElement,
+        ClassExpression, FormalParameterList, FunctionBody, FunctionDeclaration,
+        FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression,
+    },
+    operations::{
+        bound_names, lexically_declared_names, lexically_scoped_declarations, var_declared_names,
+        var_scoped_declarations, LexicallyScopedDeclaration, VarScopedDeclaration,
+    },
+    property::PropertyName,
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, IdentifierReference, Scope},
+    statement::{
+        iteration::{ForLoopInitializer, IterableLoopInitializer},
+        Block, Catch, ForInLoop, ForLoop, ForOfLoop, Switch, With,
+    },
+    try_break,
+    visitor::{NodeRef, NodeRefMut, VisitorMut},
+    Declaration, Module, Script, StatementListItem, ToJsString,
+};
+use boa_interner::{Interner, Sym};
+use rustc_hash::FxHashMap;
+use std::ops::ControlFlow;
+
+/// Collect bindings and fill the scopes with them.
+#[must_use]
+pub(crate) fn collect_bindings<'a, N>(
+    node: &'a mut N,
+    strict: bool,
+    eval: bool,
+    scope: &Scope,
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> bool
+where
+    &'a mut N: Into<NodeRefMut<'a>>,
+{
+    let mut visitor = BindingCollectorVisitor {
+        strict,
+        eval,
+        scope: scope.clone(),
+        interner,
+    };
+    !visitor.visit(node).is_break()
+}
+
+/// Analyze if bindings escape their function scopes.
+#[must_use]
+pub(crate) fn analyze_binding_escapes<'a, N>(
+    node: &'a mut N,
+    in_eval: bool,
+    scope: Scope,
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> bool
+where
+    &'a mut N: Into<NodeRefMut<'a>>,
+{
+    let mut visitor = BindingEscapeAnalyzer {
+        scope,
+        direct_eval: in_eval,
+        with: false,
+        interner,
+    };
+    !visitor.visit(node.into()).is_break()
+}
+
+struct BindingEscapeAnalyzer<'interner> {
+    scope: Scope,
+    direct_eval: bool,
+    with: bool,
+    interner: &'interner Interner,
+}
+
+impl<'ast> VisitorMut<'ast> for BindingEscapeAnalyzer<'_> {
+    type BreakTy = &'static str;
+
+    fn visit_identifier_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Identifier) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let name = node.to_js_string(self.interner);
+        self.scope
+            .access_binding(&name, self.direct_eval || self.with);
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_block_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Block) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        self.direct_eval = node.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_list_mut(&mut node.statements));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_switch_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Switch) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.val));
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        self.direct_eval = node.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        for case in &mut node.cases {
+            try_break!(self.visit_case_mut(case));
+        }
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_with_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let with = self.with;
+        self.with = true;
+        if self.direct_eval {
+            node.scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.expression));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.statement));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.scope);
+        self.with = with;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_catch_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Catch) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        self.direct_eval = node.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+        if self.direct_eval {
+            node.scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.scope);
+        if let Some(binding) = &mut node.parameter {
+            try_break!(self.visit_binding_mut(binding));
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_block_mut(&mut node.block));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.scope);
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        self.direct_eval = node.inner.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(decl)) = &mut node.inner.init {
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                decl.scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut decl.scope);
+        }
+        if let Some(init) = &mut node.inner.init {
+            try_break!(self.visit_for_loop_initializer_mut(init));
+        }
+        if let Some(condition) = &mut node.inner.condition {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(condition));
+        }
+        if let Some(final_expr) = &mut node.inner.final_expr {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(final_expr));
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.inner.body));
+        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(decl)) = &mut node.inner.init {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut decl.scope);
+        }
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_in_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForInLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.target_scope {
+            self.direct_eval = node.target_contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.target));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.target_scope {
+            self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            self.direct_eval = node.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.initializer));
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_of_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForOfLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.iterable_scope {
+            self.direct_eval = node.iterable_contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.iterable));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.iterable_scope {
+            self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            self.direct_eval = node.contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.init));
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut node.scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_function_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut FunctionDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_generator_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut GeneratorDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_function_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_generator_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_function_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut FunctionExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_generator_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut GeneratorExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_function_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncFunctionExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_generator_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncGeneratorExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_arrow_function_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ArrowFunction,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_arrow_function_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncArrowFunction,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        node.name_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.name_scope);
+        if let Some(super_ref) = &mut node.super_ref {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(super_ref));
+        }
+        if let Some(constructor) = &mut node.constructor {
+            try_break!(self.visit_function_expression_mut(constructor));
+        }
+        for element in &mut *node.elements {
+            try_break!(self.visit_class_element_mut(element));
+        }
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut node.name_scope);
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        if let Some(name_scope) = &mut node.name_scope {
+            if self.direct_eval {
+                name_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            }
+            name_scope.escape_all_bindings();
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, name_scope);
+        }
+        if let Some(super_ref) = &mut node.super_ref {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(super_ref));
+        }
+        if let Some(constructor) = &mut node.constructor {
+            try_break!(self.visit_function_expression_mut(constructor));
+        }
+        for element in &mut *node.elements {
+            try_break!(self.visit_class_element_mut(element));
+        }
+        if let Some(name_scope) = &mut node.name_scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, name_scope);
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_element_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassElement,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        if let ClassElement::MethodDefinition(node) = node {
+            self.visit_function_like(
+                &mut node.parameters,
+                &mut node.body,
+                &node.scopes,
+                node.contains_direct_eval,
+            )
+        } else {
+            ControlFlow::Continue(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn visit_object_method_definition_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ObjectMethodDefinition,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        try_break!(self.visit_property_name_mut(&mut node.name));
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.body,
+            &node.scopes,
+            node.contains_direct_eval,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_export_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ExportDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        match node {
+            ExportDeclaration::ReExport { specifier, kind } => {
+                try_break!(self.visit_module_specifier_mut(specifier));
+                self.visit_re_export_kind_mut(kind)
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::List(list) => {
+                for item in &mut **list {
+                    try_break!(self.visit_export_specifier_mut(item));
+                }
+                ControlFlow::Continue(())
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::VarStatement(var) => self.visit_var_declaration_mut(var),
+            ExportDeclaration::Declaration(decl) => self.visit_declaration_mut(decl),
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultFunctionDeclaration(f) => {
+                self.visit_function_declaration_mut(f)
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultGeneratorDeclaration(g) => {
+                self.visit_generator_declaration_mut(g)
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultAsyncFunctionDeclaration(af) => {
+                self.visit_async_function_declaration_mut(af)
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultAsyncGeneratorDeclaration(ag) => {
+                self.visit_async_generator_declaration_mut(ag)
+            }
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultClassDeclaration(c) => self.visit_class_declaration_mut(c),
+            ExportDeclaration::DefaultAssignmentExpression(expr) => {
+                let name = Sym::DEFAULT_EXPORT.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                drop(self.scope.create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false));
+                self.scope.access_binding(&name, true);
+                self.visit_expression_mut(expr)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn visit_module_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Module) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut scope = node.scope.clone();
+        scope.escape_all_bindings();
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_module_item_list_mut(&mut node.items));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl BindingEscapeAnalyzer<'_> {
+    fn visit_function_like(
+        &mut self,
+        parameters: &mut FormalParameterList,
+        body: &mut FunctionBody,
+        scopes: &FunctionScopes,
+        contains_direct_eval: bool,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<&'static str> {
+        let direct_eval_old = self.direct_eval;
+        self.direct_eval = contains_direct_eval || self.direct_eval;
+        if self.direct_eval {
+            scopes.escape_all_bindings();
+        }
+        let mut scope = scopes.parameter_scope();
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(parameters));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        scope = scopes.body_scope();
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_function_body_mut(body));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        self.direct_eval = direct_eval_old;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+}
+
+struct BindingCollectorVisitor<'interner> {
+    strict: bool,
+    eval: bool,
+    scope: Scope,
+    interner: &'interner Interner,
+}
+
+impl<'ast> VisitorMut<'ast> for BindingCollectorVisitor<'_> {
+    type BreakTy = &'static str;
+
+    fn visit_function_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut FunctionDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_generator_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut GeneratorDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_function_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncFunctionDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_generator_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncGeneratorDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_function_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut FunctionExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let name = if node.has_binding_identifier {
+            node.name()
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            name,
+            &mut node.name_scope,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_generator_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut GeneratorExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let name = if node.has_binding_identifier {
+            node.name()
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            name,
+            &mut node.name_scope,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_function_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncFunctionExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let name = if node.has_binding_identifier {
+            node.name()
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            name,
+            &mut node.name_scope,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_generator_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncGeneratorExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let name = if node.has_binding_identifier {
+            node.name()
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            name,
+            &mut node.name_scope,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_arrow_function_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ArrowFunction,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            true,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_async_arrow_function_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut AsyncArrowFunction,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            true,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_declaration_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassDeclaration,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut name_scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+        let name = node.name().to_js_string(self.interner);
+        name_scope.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut name_scope);
+        if let Some(super_ref) = &mut node.super_ref {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(super_ref));
+        }
+        if let Some(constructor) = &mut node.constructor {
+            try_break!(self.visit_function_expression_mut(constructor));
+        }
+        for element in &mut *node.elements {
+            try_break!(self.visit_class_element_mut(element));
+        }
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut name_scope);
+        node.name_scope = name_scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_expression_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassExpression,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut name_scope = None;
+        if let Some(name) = node.name {
+            if node.name_scope.is_some() {
+                let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                scope.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                node.name_scope = Some(scope.clone());
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                name_scope = Some(scope);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(super_ref) = &mut node.super_ref {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(super_ref));
+        }
+        if let Some(constructor) = &mut node.constructor {
+            try_break!(self.visit_function_expression_mut(constructor));
+        }
+        for element in &mut *node.elements {
+            try_break!(self.visit_class_element_mut(element));
+        }
+        if let Some(mut scope) = name_scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_class_element_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ClassElement,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        match node {
+            ClassElement::MethodDefinition(node) => {
+                let strict = node.body.strict();
+                self.visit_function_like(
+                    &mut node.body,
+                    &mut node.parameters,
+                    &mut node.scopes,
+                    None,
+                    &mut None,
+                    strict,
+                    false,
+                )
+            }
+            ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field) | ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                try_break!(self.visit_property_name_mut(&mut field.name));
+                let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), true);
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                if let Some(e) = &mut field.field {
+                    try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(e));
+                }
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                field.scope = scope;
+                ControlFlow::Continue(())
+            }
+            ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), true);
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                if let Some(e) = &mut field.field {
+                    try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(e));
+                }
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                field.scope = scope;
+                ControlFlow::Continue(())
+            }
+            ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, e) => {
+                if let Some(e) = e {
+                    try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(e));
+                }
+                ControlFlow::Continue(())
+            }
+            ClassElement::StaticBlock(node) => {
+                let strict = node.body.strict();
+                self.visit_function_like(
+                    &mut node.body,
+                    &mut FormalParameterList::default(),
+                    &mut node.scopes,
+                    None,
+                    &mut None,
+                    strict,
+                    false,
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn visit_object_method_definition_mut(
+        &mut self,
+        node: &'ast mut ObjectMethodDefinition,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        match &mut node.name {
+            PropertyName::Literal(_) => {}
+            PropertyName::Computed(name) => {
+                try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(name));
+            }
+        }
+        let strict = node.body.strict();
+        self.visit_function_like(
+            &mut node.body,
+            &mut node.parameters,
+            &mut node.scopes,
+            None,
+            &mut None,
+            strict,
+            false,
+        )
+    }
+
+    fn visit_block_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Block) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut scope = block_declaration_instantiation(node, self.scope.clone(), self.interner);
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_list_mut(&mut node.statements));
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        node.scope = scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_switch_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Switch) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.val));
+        let mut scope = block_declaration_instantiation(node, self.scope.clone(), self.interner);
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        for case in &mut *node.cases {
+            try_break!(self.visit_case_mut(case));
+        }
+        if let Some(scope) = &mut scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, scope);
+        }
+        node.scope = scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_with_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut With) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.expression));
+        let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.statement));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        node.scope = scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_catch_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Catch) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+        if let Some(binding) = node.parameter() {
+            match binding {
+                Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
+                    let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                    drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false));
+                }
+                Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
+                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
+                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident, false));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        if let Some(binding) = &mut node.parameter {
+            try_break!(self.visit_binding_mut(binding));
+        }
+        try_break!(self.visit_block_mut(&mut node.block));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        node.scope = scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let scope = match &mut node.inner.init {
+            Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(decl)) => {
+                let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                let names = bound_names(&decl.declaration);
+                if decl.declaration.is_const() {
+                    for name in &names {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        scope.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    for name in &names {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                decl.scope = scope.clone();
+                std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+                Some(scope)
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        if let Some(fli) = &mut node.inner.init {
+            try_break!(self.visit_for_loop_initializer_mut(fli));
+        }
+        if let Some(expr) = &mut node.inner.condition {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(expr));
+        }
+        if let Some(expr) = &mut node.inner.final_expr {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(expr));
+        }
+        self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.inner.body);
+        if let Some(mut scope) = scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_in_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForInLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let initializer_bound_names = match node.initializer() {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
+            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => bound_names(declaration),
+            _ => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        if initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.target));
+        } else {
+            let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+            for name in &initializer_bound_names {
+                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.target));
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            node.target_scope = Some(scope);
+        }
+        let scope = match node.initializer() {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration) => {
+                let scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                match declaration {
+                    Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
+                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false));
+                    }
+                    Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
+                        for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
+                            let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                            drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident, false));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Some(scope)
+            }
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => {
+                let scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                match declaration {
+                    Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
+                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        scope.create_immutable_binding(ident.clone(), true);
+                    }
+                    Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
+                        for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
+                            let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                            scope.create_immutable_binding(ident, true);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Some(scope)
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        if let Some(mut scope) = scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.initializer));
+            try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            node.scope = Some(scope);
+        } else {
+            try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.initializer));
+            try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_for_of_loop_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut ForOfLoop) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let initializer_bound_names = match node.initializer() {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
+            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => bound_names(declaration),
+            _ => Vec::new(),
+        };
+        if initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.iterable));
+        } else {
+            let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+            for name in &initializer_bound_names {
+                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            try_break!(self.visit_expression_mut(&mut node.iterable));
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            node.iterable_scope = Some(scope);
+        }
+        let scope = match node.initializer() {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration) => {
+                let scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                match declaration {
+                    Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
+                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false));
+                    }
+                    Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
+                        for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
+                            let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                            drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(ident, false));
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Some(scope)
+            }
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => {
+                let scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+                match declaration {
+                    Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
+                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                        scope.create_immutable_binding(ident.clone(), true);
+                    }
+                    Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
+                        for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
+                            let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner);
+                            scope.create_immutable_binding(ident, true);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                Some(scope)
+            }
+            _ => None,
+        };
+        if let Some(mut scope) = scope {
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.init));
+            try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+            std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+            node.scope = Some(scope);
+        } else {
+            try_break!(self.visit_iterable_loop_initializer_mut(&mut node.init));
+            try_break!(self.visit_statement_mut(&mut node.body));
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_module_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Module) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        let mut scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), true);
+        module_instantiation(node, &scope, self.interner);
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_module_item_list_mut(&mut node.items));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut scope);
+        node.scope = scope;
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+
+    fn visit_script_mut(&mut self, node: &'ast mut Script) -> ControlFlow<Self::BreakTy> {
+        if self.eval {
+            try_break!(self.visit_statement_list_mut(node.statements_mut()));
+        } else {
+            match global_declaration_instantiation(node, &self.scope, self.interner) {
+                Ok(()) => {
+                    try_break!(self.visit_statement_list_mut(node.statements_mut()));
+                }
+                Err(e) => return ControlFlow::Break(e),
+            }
+        }
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+}
+
+impl BindingCollectorVisitor<'_> {
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn visit_function_like(
+        &mut self,
+        body: &mut FunctionBody,
+        parameters: &mut FormalParameterList,
+        scopes: &mut FunctionScopes,
+        name: Option<Identifier>,
+        name_scope: &mut Option<Scope>,
+        strict: bool,
+        arrow: bool,
+    ) -> ControlFlow<&'static str> {
+        let strict = self.strict || strict;
+
+        let function_scope = if let Some(name) = name {
+            let scope = Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), false);
+            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner);
+            scope.create_immutable_binding(name, strict);
+            *name_scope = Some(scope.clone());
+            Scope::new(scope, true)
+        } else {
+            Scope::new(self.scope.clone(), true)
+        };
+
+        let function_scopes = function_declaration_instantiation(
+            body,
+            parameters,
+            arrow,
+            strict,
+            function_scope.clone(),
+            self.interner,
+        );
+
+        let mut params_scope = function_scopes.parameter_scope();
+        let mut body_scope = function_scopes.body_scope();
+
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut params_scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_formal_parameter_list_mut(parameters));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut params_scope);
+
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut body_scope);
+        try_break!(self.visit_function_body_mut(body));
+        std::mem::swap(&mut self.scope, &mut body_scope);
+
+        *scopes = function_scopes;
+
+        ControlFlow::Continue(())
+    }
+}
+
+/// `GlobalDeclarationInstantiation ( script, env )`
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-globaldeclarationinstantiation
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// - If a duplicate lexical declaration is found.
+fn global_declaration_instantiation(
+    script: &Script,
+    env: &Scope,
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> Result<(), &'static str> {
+    // 1. Let lexNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of script.
+    let lex_names = lexically_declared_names(script);
+
+    // 2. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of script.
+    let var_names = var_declared_names(script);
+
+    // 3. For each element name of lexNames, do
+    for name in lex_names {
+        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+        // Note: Our implementation differs from the spec here.
+        // a. If env.HasVarDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
+        // b. If env.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
+        if env.has_binding(&name) {
+            return Err("duplicate lexical declaration");
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 4. For each element name of varNames, do
+    for name in var_names {
+        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+        // a. If env.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
+        if env.has_lex_binding(&name) {
+            return Err("duplicate lexical declaration");
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 13. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of script.
+    // 14. Let privateEnv be null.
+    // 15. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
+    for statement in &**script.statements() {
+        // a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
+        // b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
+        //     i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
+        //         1. Perform ? env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
+        //     ii. Else,
+        //         1. Perform ? env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
+        if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
+            match declaration {
+                Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(class) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// `BlockDeclarationInstantiation ( code, env )`
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-blockdeclarationinstantiation
+fn block_declaration_instantiation<'a, N>(
+    block: &'a N,
+    scope: Scope,
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> Option<Scope>
+where
+    &'a N: Into<NodeRef<'a>>,
+{
+    let scope = Scope::new(scope, false);
+
+    // 1. Let declarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
+    let declarations = lexically_scoped_declarations(block);
+
+    // 2. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
+    // Note: Private environments are currently handled differently.
+
+    // 3. For each element d of declarations, do
+    for d in &declarations {
+        // i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
+        if let LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Const(d)) = d {
+            // a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
+            for dn in bound_names::<'_, VariableList>(d) {
+                // 1. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
+                let dn = dn.to_js_string(interner);
+                scope.create_immutable_binding(dn, true);
+            }
+        }
+        // ii. Else,
+        else {
+            // a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
+            for dn in d.bound_names() {
+                let dn = dn.to_js_string(interner);
+
+                #[cfg(not(feature = "annex-b"))]
+                // 1. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false). NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.2.6.
+                drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(dn, false));
+
+                #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
+                // 1. If ! env.HasBinding(dn) is false, then
+                if !scope.has_binding(&dn) {
+                    // a. Perform  ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
+                    drop(scope.create_mutable_binding(dn, false));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if scope.num_bindings() > 0 {
+        Some(scope)
+    } else {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+/// `FunctionDeclarationInstantiation ( func, argumentsList )`
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-functiondeclarationinstantiation
+fn function_declaration_instantiation(
+    body: &FunctionBody,
+    formals: &FormalParameterList,
+    arrow: bool,
+    strict: bool,
+    function_scope: Scope,
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> FunctionScopes {
+    let mut scopes = FunctionScopes {
+        function_scope,
+        parameters_eval_scope: None,
+        parameters_scope: None,
+        lexical_scope: None,
+    };
+
+    // 1. Let calleeContext be the running execution context.
+    // 2. Let code be func.[[ECMAScriptCode]].
+    // 3. Let strict be func.[[Strict]].
+    // 4. Let formals be func.[[FormalParameters]].
+
+    // 5. Let parameterNames be the BoundNames of formals.
+    let mut parameter_names = bound_names(formals);
+
+    // 6. If parameterNames has any duplicate entries, let hasDuplicates be true. Otherwise, let hasDuplicates be false.
+    // 7. Let simpleParameterList be IsSimpleParameterList of formals.
+
+    // 8. Let hasParameterExpressions be ContainsExpression of formals.
+    let has_parameter_expressions = formals.has_expressions();
+
+    // 9. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of code.
+    let var_names = var_declared_names(body);
+
+    // 10. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of code.
+    let var_declarations = var_scoped_declarations(body);
+
+    // 11. Let lexicalNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of code.
+    let lexical_names = lexically_declared_names(body);
+
+    // 12. Let functionNames be a new empty List.
+    let mut function_names = Vec::new();
+
+    // 13. Let functionsToInitialize be a new empty List.
+    // let mut functions_to_initialize = Vec::new();
+
+    // 14. For each element d of varDeclarations, in reverse List order, do
+    for declaration in var_declarations.iter().rev() {
+        // a. If d is neither a VariableDeclaration nor a ForBinding nor a BindingIdentifier, then
+        // a.i. Assert: d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
+        // a.ii. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
+        let name = match declaration {
+            VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(_) => continue,
+        };
+
+        // a.iii. If functionNames does not contain fn, then
+        if !function_names.contains(&name) {
+            // 1. Insert fn as the first element of functionNames.
+            function_names.push(name);
+        }
+    }
+
+    function_names.reverse();
+
+    // 15. Let argumentsObjectNeeded be true.
+    let mut arguments_object_needed = true;
+
+    let arguments = Sym::ARGUMENTS.into();
+
+    // 16. If func.[[ThisMode]] is lexical, then
+    // 17. Else if parameterNames contains "arguments", then
+    if arrow || parameter_names.contains(&arguments) {
+        // 16.a. NOTE: Arrow functions never have an arguments object.
+        // 16.b. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
+        // 17.a. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
+        arguments_object_needed = false;
+    }
+    // 18. Else if hasParameterExpressions is false, then
+    else if !has_parameter_expressions {
+        //a. If functionNames contains "arguments" or lexicalNames contains "arguments", then
+        if function_names.contains(&arguments) || lexical_names.contains(&arguments) {
+            // i. Set argumentsObjectNeeded to false.
+            arguments_object_needed = false;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 19. If strict is true or hasParameterExpressions is false, then
+    let env = if strict || !has_parameter_expressions {
+        // a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters,
+        //    since calls to eval in strict mode code cannot create new bindings which are visible outside of the eval.
+        // b. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
+        scopes.function_scope.clone()
+    }
+    // 20. Else,
+    else {
+        // a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that bindings created by
+        //    direct eval calls in the formal parameter list are outside the environment where parameters are declared.
+        // b. Let calleeEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
+        // c. Let env be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(calleeEnv).
+        // d. Assert: The VariableEnvironment of calleeContext is calleeEnv.
+        // e. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to env.
+        let scope = Scope::new(scopes.function_scope.clone(), false);
+        scopes.parameters_eval_scope = Some(scope.clone());
+        scope
+    };
+
+    // 22. If argumentsObjectNeeded is true, then
+    //
+    // NOTE(HalidOdat): Has been moved up, so "arguments" gets registed as
+    //     the first binding in the environment with index 0.
+    if arguments_object_needed {
+        let arguments = arguments.to_js_string(interner);
+
+        // c. If strict is true, then
+        if strict {
+            // i. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding("arguments", false).
+            // ii. NOTE: In strict mode code early errors prevent attempting to assign
+            //           to this binding, so its mutability is not observable.
+            env.create_immutable_binding(arguments.clone(), false);
+        }
+        // d. Else,
+        else {
+            // i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding("arguments", false).
+            drop(env.create_mutable_binding(arguments.clone(), false));
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 21. For each String paramName of parameterNames, do
+    for param_name in &parameter_names {
+        let param_name = param_name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+        // a. Let alreadyDeclared be ! env.HasBinding(paramName).
+        let already_declared = env.has_binding(&param_name);
+
+        // b. NOTE: Early errors ensure that duplicate parameter names can only occur in non-strict
+        //    functions that do not have parameter default values or rest parameters.
+
+        // c. If alreadyDeclared is false, then
+        if !already_declared {
+            // i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(paramName, false).
+            drop(env.create_mutable_binding(param_name.clone(), false));
+
+            // Note: In this case the function contains a mapped arguments object.
+            // Because we do not track (yet) if the mapped arguments object escapes the function,
+            // we have to assume that the binding might escape trough the arguments object.
+            if arguments_object_needed && !strict && formals.is_simple() {
+                env.access_binding(&param_name, true);
+            }
+
+            // Note: These steps are not necessary in our implementation.
+            // ii. If hasDuplicates is true, then
+            //     1. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(paramName, undefined).
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 22. If argumentsObjectNeeded is true, then
+    if arguments_object_needed {
+        // MOVED: a-e.
+        //
+        // NOTE(HalidOdat): Has been moved up, see comment above.
+
+        // f. Let parameterBindings be the list-concatenation of parameterNames and « "arguments" ».
+        parameter_names.push(arguments);
+    }
+
+    // 23. Else,
+    //     a. Let parameterBindings be parameterNames.
+    let parameter_bindings = parameter_names.clone();
+
+    // 27. If hasParameterExpressions is false, then
+    // 28. Else,
+    #[allow(unused_variables, unused_mut)]
+    let (mut instantiated_var_names, mut var_env) = if has_parameter_expressions {
+        // a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that closures created by
+        //          expressions in the formal parameter list do not have
+        //          visibility of declarations in the function body.
+        // b. Let varEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(env).
+        let var_env = Scope::new(env.clone(), false);
+        scopes.parameters_scope = Some(var_env.clone());
+
+        // c. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to varEnv.
+
+        // d. Let instantiatedVarNames be a new empty List.
+        let mut instantiated_var_names = Vec::new();
+
+        // e. For each element n of varNames, do
+        for n in var_names {
+            // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
+            if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
+                // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
+                instantiated_var_names.push(n);
+
+                let n_string = n.to_js_string(interner);
+
+                // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
+                drop(var_env.create_mutable_binding(n_string, false));
+            }
+        }
+
+        (instantiated_var_names, var_env)
+    } else {
+        // a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters and top-level vars.
+        // b. Let instantiatedVarNames be a copy of the List parameterBindings.
+        let mut instantiated_var_names = parameter_bindings;
+
+        // c. For each element n of varNames, do
+        for n in var_names {
+            // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
+            if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
+                // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
+                instantiated_var_names.push(n);
+
+                let n = n.to_js_string(interner);
+
+                // 2. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
+                // 3. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(n, undefined).
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(n, true));
+            }
+        }
+
+        // d. Let varEnv be env.
+        (instantiated_var_names, env)
+    };
+
+    // 29. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.1 adds additional steps at this point.
+    // 29. If strict is false, then
+    #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
+    if !strict {
+        // a. For each FunctionDeclaration f that is directly contained in the StatementList
+        //    of a Block, CaseClause, or DefaultClause, do
+        for f in annex_b_function_declarations_names(body) {
+            // i. Let F be StringValue of the BindingIdentifier of f.
+            // ii. If replacing the FunctionDeclaration f with a VariableStatement that has F
+            //     as a BindingIdentifier would not produce any Early Errors
+            //     for func and parameterNames does not contain F, then
+            if !lexical_names.contains(&f) && !parameter_names.contains(&f) {
+                // 1. NOTE: A var binding for F is only instantiated here if it is neither a
+                //    VarDeclaredName, the name of a formal parameter, or another FunctionDeclaration.
+
+                // 2. If initializedBindings does not contain F and F is not "arguments", then
+                if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&f) && f != arguments {
+                    let f_string = f.to_js_string(interner);
+
+                    // a. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(F, false).
+                    // b. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(F, undefined).
+                    drop(var_env.create_mutable_binding(f_string, false));
+
+                    // c. Append F to instantiatedVarNames.
+                    instantiated_var_names.push(f);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 30. If strict is false, then
+    // 31. Else,
+    let lex_env = if strict {
+        // a. Let lexEnv be varEnv.
+        var_env
+    } else {
+        // a. Let lexEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(varEnv).
+        // b. NOTE: Non-strict functions use a separate Environment Record for top-level lexical
+        //    declarations so that a direct eval can determine whether any var scoped declarations
+        //    introduced by the eval code conflict with pre-existing top-level lexically scoped declarations.
+        //    This is not needed for strict functions because a strict direct eval always
+        //    places all declarations into a new Environment Record.
+        let lex_env = Scope::new(var_env, false);
+        scopes.lexical_scope = Some(lex_env.clone());
+        lex_env
+    };
+
+    // 32. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to lexEnv.
+    // 33. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
+    // 34. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
+    //     a. NOTE: A lexically declared name cannot be the same as a function/generator declaration,
+    //        formal parameter, or a var name. Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
+    //     b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
+    //         i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
+    //             1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
+    //         ii. Else,
+    //             1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
+    for statement in body.statements() {
+        if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
+            match declaration {
+                Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(class) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        lex_env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 35. Let privateEnv be the PrivateEnvironment of calleeContext.
+    // 36. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
+
+    if let Some(lexical_scope) = &scopes.lexical_scope {
+        if lexical_scope.num_bindings() == 0 {
+            scopes.lexical_scope = None;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 37. Return unused.
+    scopes
+}
+
+/// Abstract operation [`InitializeEnvironment ( )`][spec].
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-source-text-module-record-initialize-environment
+fn module_instantiation(module: &Module, env: &Scope, interner: &Interner) {
+    for entry in module.items().import_entries() {
+        let local_name = entry.local_name().to_js_string(interner);
+        env.create_immutable_binding(local_name, true);
+    }
+    let var_declarations = var_scoped_declarations(module);
+    let mut declared_var_names = Vec::new();
+    for var in var_declarations {
+        for name in var.bound_names() {
+            let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+            if !declared_var_names.contains(&name) {
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false));
+                declared_var_names.push(name);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let lex_declarations = lexically_scoped_declarations(module);
+    for declaration in lex_declarations {
+        match declaration {
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => {
+                let name = bound_names(f)[0].to_js_string(interner);
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(g) => {
+                let name = bound_names(g)[0].to_js_string(interner);
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(af) => {
+                let name = bound_names(af)[0].to_js_string(interner);
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(ag) => {
+                let name = bound_names(ag)[0].to_js_string(interner);
+                drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
+                for name in bound_names(class) {
+                    let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                    drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Const(c)) => {
+                for name in bound_names(c) {
+                    let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                    env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Let(l)) => {
+                for name in bound_names(l) {
+                    let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                    drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AssignmentExpression(expr) => {
+                for name in bound_names(expr) {
+                    let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                    drop(env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+        };
+    }
+}
+
+/// This struct isused to store bindings created during the declaration of an eval ast node.
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct EvalDeclarationBindings {
+    /// New annexb function names created during the declaration of an eval ast node.
+    pub new_annex_b_function_names: Vec<IdentifierReference>,
+
+    /// New function names created during the declaration of an eval ast node.
+    pub new_function_names: FxHashMap<Identifier, (IdentifierReference, bool)>,
+
+    /// New variable names created during the declaration of an eval ast node.
+    pub new_var_names: Vec<IdentifierReference>,
+}
+
+/// `EvalDeclarationInstantiation ( body, varEnv, lexEnv, privateEnv, strict )`
+///
+/// More information:
+///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
+///
+/// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-evaldeclarationinstantiation
+///
+/// # Errors
+///
+/// * Returns a syntax error if a duplicate lexical declaration is found.
+/// * Returns a syntax error if a variable declaration in an eval function already exists as a lexical variable.
+#[allow(clippy::missing_panics_doc)]
+pub(crate) fn eval_declaration_instantiation_scope(
+    body: &Script,
+    strict: bool,
+    var_env: &Scope,
+    lex_env: &Scope,
+    #[allow(unused_variables)] annex_b_function_names: &[Identifier],
+    interner: &Interner,
+) -> Result<EvalDeclarationBindings, String> {
+    let mut result = EvalDeclarationBindings::default();
+
+    // 2. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of body.
+    let var_declarations = var_scoped_declarations(body);
+
+    // 3. If strict is false, then
+    if !strict {
+        // 1. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of body.
+        let var_names = var_declared_names(body);
+
+        // a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
+        if var_env.is_global() {
+            // i. For each element name of varNames, do
+            for name in &var_names {
+                let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+                // 1. If varEnv.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
+                // 2. NOTE: eval will not create a global var declaration that would be shadowed by a global lexical declaration.
+                if var_env.has_lex_binding(&name) {
+                    return Err(format!(
+                        "duplicate lexical declaration {}",
+                        name.to_std_string_escaped()
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // b. Let thisEnv be lexEnv.
+        let mut this_env = lex_env.clone();
+
+        // c. Assert: The following loop will terminate.
+        // d. Repeat, while thisEnv is not varEnv,
+        while this_env.scope_index() != var_env.scope_index() {
+            // i. If thisEnv is not an Object Environment Record, then
+            // 1. NOTE: The environment of with statements cannot contain any lexical
+            //    declaration so it doesn't need to be checked for var/let hoisting conflicts.
+            // 2. For each element name of varNames, do
+            for name in &var_names {
+                let name = interner.resolve_expect(name.sym()).utf16().into();
+
+                // a. If ! thisEnv.HasBinding(name) is true, then
+                if this_env.has_binding(&name) {
+                    // i. Throw a SyntaxError exception.
+                    // ii. NOTE: Annex B.3.4 defines alternate semantics for the above step.
+                    return Err(format!("variable declaration {} in eval function already exists as a lexical variable", name.to_std_string_escaped()));
+                }
+                // b. NOTE: A direct eval will not hoist var declaration over a like-named lexical declaration.
+            }
+
+            // ii. Set thisEnv to thisEnv.[[OuterEnv]].
+            if let Some(outer) = this_env.outer() {
+                this_env = outer;
+            } else {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // NOTE: These steps depend on the current environment state are done before bytecode compilation,
+    //       in `eval_declaration_instantiation_context`.
+    //
+    // SKIP: 4. Let privateIdentifiers be a new empty List.
+    // SKIP: 5. Let pointer be privateEnv.
+    // SKIP: 6. Repeat, while pointer is not null,
+    //           a. For each Private Name binding of pointer.[[Names]], do
+    //               i. If privateIdentifiers does not contain binding.[[Description]],
+    //                  append binding.[[Description]] to privateIdentifiers.
+    //           b. Set pointer to pointer.[[OuterPrivateEnvironment]].
+    // SKIP: 7. If AllPrivateIdentifiersValid of body with argument privateIdentifiers is false, throw a SyntaxError exception.
+
+    // 8. Let functionsToInitialize be a new empty List.
+    let mut functions_to_initialize = Vec::new();
+
+    // 9. Let declaredFunctionNames be a new empty List.
+    let mut declared_function_names = Vec::new();
+
+    // 10. For each element d of varDeclarations, in reverse List order, do
+    for declaration in var_declarations.iter().rev() {
+        // a. If d is not either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then
+        // a.i. Assert: d is either a FunctionDeclaration, a GeneratorDeclaration, an AsyncFunctionDeclaration, or an AsyncGeneratorDeclaration.
+        // a.ii. NOTE: If there are multiple function declarations for the same name, the last declaration is used.
+        // a.iii. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of d.
+        let name = match &declaration {
+            VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(_) => continue,
+        };
+        // a.iv. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain fn, then
+        if !declared_function_names.contains(&name) {
+            // 1. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
+            // 2. Append fn to declaredFunctionNames.
+            declared_function_names.push(name);
+
+            // 3. Insert d as the first element of functionsToInitialize.
+            functions_to_initialize.push(declaration.clone());
+        }
+    }
+
+    functions_to_initialize.reverse();
+
+    // 11. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.3 adds additional steps at this point.
+    // 11. If strict is false, then
+    #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
+    if !strict {
+        // NOTE: This diviates from the specification, we split the first part of defining the annex-b names
+        //       in `eval_declaration_instantiation_context`, because it depends on the context.
+        if !var_env.is_global() {
+            for name in annex_b_function_names {
+                let f = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(F).
+                // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
+                if !var_env.has_binding(&f) {
+                    // i. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(F, true).
+                    // ii. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(F, undefined).
+                    let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(f, true);
+                    result
+                        .new_annex_b_function_names
+                        .push(IdentifierReference::new(
+                            binding,
+                            !var_env.is_function(),
+                            true,
+                        ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 12. Let declaredVarNames be a new empty List.
+    let mut declared_var_names = Vec::new();
+
+    // 13. For each element d of varDeclarations, do
+    for declaration in var_declarations {
+        // a. If d is either a VariableDeclaration, a ForBinding, or a BindingIdentifier, then
+        let VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(declaration) = declaration else {
+            continue;
+        };
+
+        // a.i. For each String vn of the BoundNames of d, do
+        for name in bound_names(&declaration) {
+            // 1. If declaredFunctionNames does not contain vn, then
+            if !declared_function_names.contains(&name) {
+                // a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
+                // b. If declaredVarNames does not contain vn, then
+                if !declared_var_names.contains(&name) {
+                    // i. Append vn to declaredVarNames.
+                    declared_var_names.push(name);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 14. NOTE: No abnormal terminations occur after this algorithm step unless varEnv is a
+    //           Global Environment Record and the global object is a Proxy exotic object.
+
+    // 15. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of body.
+    // 16. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
+    for statement in &**body.statements() {
+        // a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
+        // b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
+        //     i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
+        //         1. Perform ? lexEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
+        //     ii. Else,
+        //         1. Perform ? lexEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
+        if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
+            match declaration {
+                Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(class) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        drop(lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false));
+                    }
+                }
+                Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
+                    for name in bound_names(declaration) {
+                        let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+                        lex_env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 17. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
+    for function in functions_to_initialize {
+        // a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
+        let name = match &function {
+            VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => f.name(),
+            VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(_) => {
+                continue;
+            }
+        };
+
+        // c. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
+        // d. Else,
+        if !var_env.is_global() {
+            // b. Let fo be InstantiateFunctionObject of f with arguments lexEnv and privateEnv.
+            let n = name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+            // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(fn).
+            let binding_exists = var_env.has_binding(&n);
+
+            // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
+            // iii. Else,
+            if binding_exists {
+                // 1. Perform ! varEnv.SetMutableBinding(fn, fo, false).
+                let binding = var_env.set_mutable_binding(n).expect("must not fail");
+                result.new_function_names.insert(
+                    name,
+                    (
+                        IdentifierReference::new(binding.locator(), !var_env.is_function(), true),
+                        true,
+                    ),
+                );
+            } else {
+                // 1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation preceding step 14.
+                // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(fn, true).
+                // 3. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(fn, fo).
+                let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(n, !strict);
+                result.new_function_names.insert(
+                    name,
+                    (
+                        IdentifierReference::new(binding, !var_env.is_function(), true),
+                        false,
+                    ),
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 18. For each String vn of declaredVarNames, do
+    for name in declared_var_names {
+        // a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
+        // b. Else,
+        if !var_env.is_global() {
+            let name = name.to_js_string(interner);
+
+            // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(vn).
+            let binding_exists = var_env.has_binding(&name);
+
+            // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
+            if !binding_exists {
+                // 1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation preceding step 14.
+                // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(vn, true).
+                // 3. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(vn, undefined).
+                let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(name, true);
+                result.new_var_names.push(IdentifierReference::new(
+                    binding,
+                    !var_env.is_function(),
+                    true,
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // 19. Return unused.
+    Ok(result)
+}
diff --git a/core/ast/src/source.rs b/core/ast/src/source.rs
index 10ca0d727b..f1220a7621 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/source.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/source.rs
@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
 use std::ops::ControlFlow;
 
-use boa_interner::ToIndentedString;
+use boa_interner::{Interner, ToIndentedString};
 
 use crate::{
+    expression::Identifier,
+    scope::Scope,
+    scope_analyzer::{
+        analyze_binding_escapes, collect_bindings, eval_declaration_instantiation_scope,
+        EvalDeclarationBindings,
+    },
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     ModuleItemList, StatementList,
 };
@@ -44,6 +50,47 @@ impl Script {
     pub const fn strict(&self) -> bool {
         self.statements.strict()
     }
+
+    /// Analyze the scope of the script.
+    pub fn analyze_scope(&mut self, scope: &Scope, interner: &Interner) -> bool {
+        if !collect_bindings(self, self.strict(), false, scope, interner) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        analyze_binding_escapes(self, false, scope.clone(), interner)
+    }
+
+    /// Analyze the scope of the script in eval mode.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// Returns an error if the scope analysis fails with a syntax error.
+    pub fn analyze_scope_eval(
+        &mut self,
+        strict: bool,
+        variable_scope: &Scope,
+        lexical_scope: &Scope,
+        annex_b_function_names: &[Identifier],
+        interner: &Interner,
+    ) -> Result<EvalDeclarationBindings, String> {
+        let bindings = eval_declaration_instantiation_scope(
+            self,
+            strict,
+            variable_scope,
+            lexical_scope,
+            annex_b_function_names,
+            interner,
+        )?;
+
+        if !collect_bindings(self, strict, true, lexical_scope, interner) {
+            return Err(String::from("Failed to analyze scope"));
+        }
+
+        if !analyze_binding_escapes(self, true, lexical_scope.clone(), interner) {
+            return Err(String::from("Failed to analyze scope"));
+        }
+
+        Ok(bindings)
+    }
 }
 
 impl VisitWith for Script {
@@ -63,7 +110,7 @@ impl VisitWith for Script {
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for Script {
-    fn to_indented_string(&self, interner: &boa_interner::Interner, indentation: usize) -> String {
+    fn to_indented_string(&self, interner: &Interner, indentation: usize) -> String {
         self.statements.to_indented_string(interner, indentation)
     }
 }
@@ -77,14 +124,20 @@ impl ToIndentedString for Script {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
 pub struct Module {
-    items: ModuleItemList,
+    pub(crate) items: ModuleItemList,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
 }
 
 impl Module {
     /// Creates a new `ModuleNode`.
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(items: ModuleItemList) -> Self {
-        Self { items }
+    pub fn new(items: ModuleItemList) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            items,
+            scope: Scope::default(),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Gets the list of itemos of this `ModuleNode`.
@@ -92,6 +145,21 @@ impl Module {
     pub const fn items(&self) -> &ModuleItemList {
         &self.items
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scope of this `ModuleNode`.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
+
+    /// Analyze the scope of the module.
+    pub fn analyze_scope(&mut self, scope: &Scope, interner: &Interner) -> bool {
+        if !collect_bindings(self, true, false, scope, interner) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        analyze_binding_escapes(self, false, scope.clone(), interner)
+    }
 }
 
 impl VisitWith for Module {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/block.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/block.rs
index 590b41b2c0..94671059fd 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/block.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/block.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 //! Block AST node.
 
 use crate::{
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::Scope,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
     Statement, StatementList,
 };
@@ -27,7 +29,11 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Default)]
 pub struct Block {
     #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(flatten))]
-    statements: StatementList,
+    pub(crate) statements: StatementList,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl Block {
@@ -37,6 +43,13 @@ impl Block {
     pub const fn statement_list(&self) -> &StatementList {
         &self.statements
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scope of the block.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.scope.as_ref()
+    }
 }
 
 impl<T> From<T> for Block
@@ -44,8 +57,12 @@ where
     T: Into<StatementList>,
 {
     fn from(list: T) -> Self {
+        let statements = list.into();
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&statements, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
-            statements: list.into(),
+            statements,
+            scope: None,
+            contains_direct_eval,
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_in_loop.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_in_loop.rs
index d93e4dff56..4cee0198a6 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_in_loop.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_in_loop.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::Scope;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -18,9 +20,17 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ForInLoop {
-    initializer: IterableLoopInitializer,
-    target: Expression,
-    body: Box<Statement>,
+    pub(crate) initializer: IterableLoopInitializer,
+    pub(crate) target: Expression,
+    pub(crate) body: Box<Statement>,
+    pub(crate) target_contains_direct_eval: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) target_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl ForInLoop {
@@ -28,10 +38,17 @@ impl ForInLoop {
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub fn new(initializer: IterableLoopInitializer, target: Expression, body: Statement) -> Self {
+        let target_contains_direct_eval = contains(&target, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&initializer, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             initializer,
             target,
             body: body.into(),
+            target_contains_direct_eval,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            target_scope: None,
+            scope: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -55,6 +72,20 @@ impl ForInLoop {
     pub const fn body(&self) -> &Statement {
         &self.body
     }
+
+    /// Returns the target scope of the for...in loop.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn target_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.target_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the for...in loop.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.scope.as_ref()
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ForInLoop {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_loop.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_loop.rs
index 248c4e9c7c..a164da7efe 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_loop.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_loop.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::Scope;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -23,7 +25,7 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ForLoop {
     #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(flatten))]
-    inner: Box<InnerForLoop>,
+    pub(crate) inner: Box<InnerForLoop>,
 }
 
 impl ForLoop {
@@ -138,27 +140,39 @@ impl VisitWith for ForLoop {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-struct InnerForLoop {
-    init: Option<ForLoopInitializer>,
-    condition: Option<Expression>,
-    final_expr: Option<Expression>,
-    body: Statement,
+pub(crate) struct InnerForLoop {
+    pub(crate) init: Option<ForLoopInitializer>,
+    pub(crate) condition: Option<Expression>,
+    pub(crate) final_expr: Option<Expression>,
+    pub(crate) body: Statement,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
 }
 
 impl InnerForLoop {
     /// Creates a new inner for loop.
     #[inline]
-    const fn new(
+    fn new(
         init: Option<ForLoopInitializer>,
         condition: Option<Expression>,
         final_expr: Option<Expression>,
         body: Statement,
     ) -> Self {
+        let mut contains_direct_eval = contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        if let Some(init) = &init {
+            contains_direct_eval |= contains(init, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        }
+        if let Some(condition) = &condition {
+            contains_direct_eval |= contains(condition, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        }
+        if let Some(final_expr) = &final_expr {
+            contains_direct_eval |= contains(final_expr, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        }
         Self {
             init,
             condition,
             final_expr,
             body,
+            contains_direct_eval,
         }
     }
 
@@ -204,14 +218,48 @@ pub enum ForLoopInitializer {
     /// A var declaration initializer.
     Var(VarDeclaration),
     /// A lexical declaration initializer.
-    Lexical(LexicalDeclaration),
+    Lexical(ForLoopInitializerLexical),
+}
+
+/// A lexical declaration initializer for a `ForLoop`.
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
+#[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct ForLoopInitializerLexical {
+    pub(crate) declaration: LexicalDeclaration,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
+}
+
+impl ForLoopInitializerLexical {
+    /// Creates a new lexical declaration initializer.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn new(declaration: LexicalDeclaration, scope: Scope) -> Self {
+        Self { declaration, scope }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the declaration of the lexical initializer.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn declaration(&self) -> &LexicalDeclaration {
+        &self.declaration
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the lexical initializer.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToInternedString for ForLoopInitializer {
     fn to_interned_string(&self, interner: &Interner) -> String {
         match self {
             Self::Var(var) => var.to_interned_string(interner),
-            Self::Lexical(lex) => lex.to_interned_string(interner),
+            Self::Lexical(lex) => lex.declaration.to_interned_string(interner),
             Self::Expression(expr) => expr.to_interned_string(interner),
         }
     }
@@ -227,7 +275,10 @@ impl From<Expression> for ForLoopInitializer {
 impl From<LexicalDeclaration> for ForLoopInitializer {
     #[inline]
     fn from(list: LexicalDeclaration) -> Self {
-        Self::Lexical(list)
+        Self::Lexical(ForLoopInitializerLexical {
+            declaration: list,
+            scope: Scope::default(),
+        })
     }
 }
 
@@ -246,7 +297,7 @@ impl VisitWith for ForLoopInitializer {
         match self {
             Self::Expression(expr) => visitor.visit_expression(expr),
             Self::Var(vd) => visitor.visit_var_declaration(vd),
-            Self::Lexical(ld) => visitor.visit_lexical_declaration(ld),
+            Self::Lexical(ld) => visitor.visit_lexical_declaration(&ld.declaration),
         }
     }
 
@@ -257,7 +308,7 @@ impl VisitWith for ForLoopInitializer {
         match self {
             Self::Expression(expr) => visitor.visit_expression_mut(expr),
             Self::Var(vd) => visitor.visit_var_declaration_mut(vd),
-            Self::Lexical(ld) => visitor.visit_lexical_declaration_mut(ld),
+            Self::Lexical(ld) => visitor.visit_lexical_declaration_mut(&mut ld.declaration),
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_of_loop.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_of_loop.rs
index 3f660046cb..a26e5df9cf 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_of_loop.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/for_of_loop.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::Scope;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -23,10 +25,18 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct ForOfLoop {
-    init: IterableLoopInitializer,
-    iterable: Expression,
-    body: Box<Statement>,
+    pub(crate) init: IterableLoopInitializer,
+    pub(crate) iterable: Expression,
+    pub(crate) body: Box<Statement>,
     r#await: bool,
+    pub(crate) iterable_contains_direct_eval: bool,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) iterable_scope: Option<Scope>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl ForOfLoop {
@@ -39,11 +49,18 @@ impl ForOfLoop {
         body: Statement,
         r#await: bool,
     ) -> Self {
+        let iterable_contains_direct_eval = contains(&iterable, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        let contains_direct_eval = contains(&init, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval)
+            || contains(&body, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
         Self {
             init,
             iterable,
             body: body.into(),
+            iterable_contains_direct_eval,
+            contains_direct_eval,
             r#await,
+            iterable_scope: None,
+            scope: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -74,6 +91,20 @@ impl ForOfLoop {
     pub const fn r#await(&self) -> bool {
         self.r#await
     }
+
+    /// Return the iterable scope of the for...of loop.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn iterable_scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.iterable_scope.as_ref()
+    }
+
+    /// Return the scope of the for...of loop.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.scope.as_ref()
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for ForOfLoop {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/mod.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/mod.rs
index a1177f4956..e3611e6603 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/mod.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/iteration/mod.rs
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 pub use self::{
     do_while_loop::DoWhileLoop,
     for_in_loop::ForInLoop,
-    for_loop::{ForLoop, ForLoopInitializer},
+    for_loop::{ForLoop, ForLoopInitializer, ForLoopInitializerLexical},
     for_of_loop::ForOfLoop,
     r#break::Break,
     r#continue::Continue,
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/switch.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/switch.rs
index 87c4154239..42d5c646af 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/switch.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/switch.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 //! Switch node.
 use crate::{
     expression::Expression,
+    operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::Scope,
     statement::Statement,
     try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
@@ -114,8 +116,12 @@ impl VisitWith for Case {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct Switch {
-    val: Expression,
-    cases: Box<[Case]>,
+    pub(crate) val: Expression,
+    pub(crate) cases: Box<[Case]>,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl Switch {
@@ -123,7 +129,16 @@ impl Switch {
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
     pub fn new(val: Expression, cases: Box<[Case]>) -> Self {
-        Self { val, cases }
+        let mut contains_direct_eval = false;
+        for case in &cases {
+            contains_direct_eval |= contains(case, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        }
+        Self {
+            val,
+            cases,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scope: None,
+        }
     }
 
     /// Gets the value to switch.
@@ -151,6 +166,13 @@ impl Switch {
         }
         None
     }
+
+    /// Gets the scope of the switch statement.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> Option<&Scope> {
+        self.scope.as_ref()
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for Switch {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/try.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/try.rs
index 8370b19e9f..8354fe169a 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/try.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/try.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 //! Error handling statements
 
+use crate::operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol};
+use crate::scope::Scope;
 use crate::try_break;
 use crate::visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut};
 use crate::{
@@ -142,16 +144,29 @@ impl VisitWith for Try {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct Catch {
-    parameter: Option<Binding>,
-    block: Block,
+    pub(crate) parameter: Option<Binding>,
+    pub(crate) block: Block,
+    pub(crate) contains_direct_eval: bool,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
 }
 
 impl Catch {
     /// Creates a new catch block.
     #[inline]
     #[must_use]
-    pub const fn new(parameter: Option<Binding>, block: Block) -> Self {
-        Self { parameter, block }
+    pub fn new(parameter: Option<Binding>, block: Block) -> Self {
+        let mut contains_direct_eval = contains(&block, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        if let Some(param) = &parameter {
+            contains_direct_eval |= contains(param, ContainsSymbol::DirectEval);
+        }
+        Self {
+            parameter,
+            block,
+            contains_direct_eval,
+            scope: Scope::default(),
+        }
     }
 
     /// Gets the parameter of the catch block.
@@ -167,6 +182,13 @@ impl Catch {
     pub const fn block(&self) -> &Block {
         &self.block
     }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the catch block.
+    #[inline]
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
 }
 
 impl ToIndentedString for Catch {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement/with.rs b/core/ast/src/statement/with.rs
index 4aad4e2659..1e8f921269 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement/with.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement/with.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 use crate::{
     expression::Expression,
+    scope::Scope,
     statement::Statement,
     try_break,
     visitor::{VisitWith, Visitor, VisitorMut},
@@ -19,8 +20,11 @@ use core::ops::ControlFlow;
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "arbitrary", derive(arbitrary::Arbitrary))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct With {
-    expression: Expression,
-    statement: Box<Statement>,
+    pub(crate) expression: Expression,
+    pub(crate) statement: Box<Statement>,
+
+    #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", serde(skip))]
+    pub(crate) scope: Scope,
 }
 
 impl With {
@@ -30,6 +34,7 @@ impl With {
         Self {
             expression,
             statement: Box::new(statement),
+            scope: Scope::default(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -44,6 +49,12 @@ impl With {
     pub const fn statement(&self) -> &Statement {
         &self.statement
     }
+
+    /// Returns the scope of the `With` statement.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub const fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
 }
 
 impl From<With> for Statement {
diff --git a/core/ast/src/statement_list.rs b/core/ast/src/statement_list.rs
index bae91c1055..e86ec9c9eb 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/statement_list.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/statement_list.rs
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ impl VisitWith for StatementListItem {
 #[cfg_attr(feature = "serde", derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize))]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, PartialEq)]
 pub struct StatementList {
-    statements: Box<[StatementListItem]>,
+    pub(crate) statements: Box<[StatementListItem]>,
     strict: bool,
 }
 
diff --git a/core/ast/src/visitor.rs b/core/ast/src/visitor.rs
index 351f52fe45..bcc22c3f74 100644
--- a/core/ast/src/visitor.rs
+++ b/core/ast/src/visitor.rs
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ use crate::{
     function::{
         ArrowFunction, AsyncArrowFunction, AsyncFunctionDeclaration, AsyncFunctionExpression,
         AsyncGeneratorDeclaration, AsyncGeneratorExpression, ClassDeclaration, ClassElement,
-        ClassExpression, FormalParameter, FormalParameterList, FunctionDeclaration,
+        ClassExpression, FormalParameter, FormalParameterList, FunctionBody, FunctionDeclaration,
         FunctionExpression, GeneratorDeclaration, GeneratorExpression, PrivateName,
     },
     pattern::{ArrayPattern, ArrayPatternElement, ObjectPattern, ObjectPatternElement, Pattern},
@@ -126,6 +126,7 @@ macro_rules! node_ref {
 node_ref! {
     Script,
     Module,
+    FunctionBody,
     StatementList,
     StatementListItem,
     Statement,
@@ -234,6 +235,7 @@ pub trait Visitor<'ast>: Sized {
 
     define_visit!(visit_script, Script);
     define_visit!(visit_module, Module);
+    define_visit!(visit_function_body, FunctionBody);
     define_visit!(visit_statement_list, StatementList);
     define_visit!(visit_statement_list_item, StatementListItem);
     define_visit!(visit_statement, Statement);
@@ -339,6 +341,7 @@ pub trait Visitor<'ast>: Sized {
         match node {
             NodeRef::Script(n) => self.visit_script(n),
             NodeRef::Module(n) => self.visit_module(n),
+            NodeRef::FunctionBody(n) => self.visit_function_body(n),
             NodeRef::StatementList(n) => self.visit_statement_list(n),
             NodeRef::StatementListItem(n) => self.visit_statement_list_item(n),
             NodeRef::Statement(n) => self.visit_statement(n),
@@ -449,6 +452,7 @@ pub trait VisitorMut<'ast>: Sized {
 
     define_visit_mut!(visit_script_mut, Script);
     define_visit_mut!(visit_module_mut, Module);
+    define_visit_mut!(visit_function_body_mut, FunctionBody);
     define_visit_mut!(visit_statement_list_mut, StatementList);
     define_visit_mut!(visit_statement_list_item_mut, StatementListItem);
     define_visit_mut!(visit_statement_mut, Statement);
@@ -563,6 +567,7 @@ pub trait VisitorMut<'ast>: Sized {
         match node {
             NodeRefMut::Script(n) => self.visit_script_mut(n),
             NodeRefMut::Module(n) => self.visit_module_mut(n),
+            NodeRefMut::FunctionBody(n) => self.visit_function_body_mut(n),
             NodeRefMut::StatementList(n) => self.visit_statement_list_mut(n),
             NodeRefMut::StatementListItem(n) => self.visit_statement_list_item_mut(n),
             NodeRefMut::Statement(n) => self.visit_statement_mut(n),
diff --git a/core/engine/Cargo.toml b/core/engine/Cargo.toml
index 547b455a2a..5e7596f6c2 100644
--- a/core/engine/Cargo.toml
+++ b/core/engine/Cargo.toml
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ flowgraph = []
 trace = ["js"]
 
 # Enable Boa's additional ECMAScript features for web browsers.
-annex-b = ["boa_parser/annex-b"]
+annex-b = ["boa_ast/annex-b", "boa_parser/annex-b"]
 
 # Enable Boa's Temporal proposal implementation
 temporal = ["dep:icu_calendar", "dep:temporal_rs"]
diff --git a/core/engine/src/builtins/eval/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/builtins/eval/mod.rs
index 75b8448580..c86b084fee 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/builtins/eval/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/builtins/eval/mod.rs
@@ -9,22 +9,23 @@
 //! [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-eval-x
 //! [mdn]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/eval
 
-use std::rc::Rc;
-
 use crate::{
     builtins::{function::OrdinaryFunction, BuiltInObject},
     bytecompiler::{eval_declaration_instantiation_context, ByteCompiler},
     context::intrinsics::Intrinsics,
-    environments::{CompileTimeEnvironment, Environment},
+    environments::Environment,
     error::JsNativeError,
     js_string,
     object::JsObject,
     realm::Realm,
     string::StaticJsStrings,
-    vm::{CallFrame, CallFrameFlags, Opcode},
+    vm::{CallFrame, CallFrameFlags, Constant, Opcode},
     Context, JsArgs, JsResult, JsString, JsValue,
 };
-use boa_ast::operations::{contains, contains_arguments, ContainsSymbol};
+use boa_ast::{
+    operations::{contains, contains_arguments, ContainsSymbol},
+    scope::Scope,
+};
 use boa_gc::Gc;
 use boa_parser::{Parser, Source};
 use boa_profiler::Profiler;
@@ -62,7 +63,7 @@ impl Eval {
     /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-eval-x
     fn eval(_: &JsValue, args: &[JsValue], context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<JsValue> {
         // 1. Return ? PerformEval(x, false, false).
-        Self::perform_eval(args.get_or_undefined(0), false, false, context)
+        Self::perform_eval(args.get_or_undefined(0), false, None, false, context)
     }
 
     /// `19.2.1.1 PerformEval ( x, strictCaller, direct )`
@@ -74,6 +75,7 @@ impl Eval {
     pub(crate) fn perform_eval(
         x: &JsValue,
         direct: bool,
+        lexical_scope: Option<Scope>,
         mut strict: bool,
         context: &mut Context,
     ) -> JsResult<JsValue> {
@@ -128,7 +130,7 @@ impl Eval {
         if strict {
             parser.set_strict();
         }
-        let body = parser.parse_eval(direct, context.interner_mut())?;
+        let mut body = parser.parse_eval(direct, context.interner_mut())?;
 
         // 6. Let inFunction be false.
         // 7. Let inMethod be false.
@@ -229,11 +231,18 @@ impl Eval {
             }
         });
 
-        let var_environment = context.vm.environments.outer_function_environment().clone();
-        let mut var_env = var_environment.compile_env();
+        let (var_environment, mut variable_scope) =
+            if let Some(e) = context.vm.environments.outer_function_environment() {
+                (e.0, e.1)
+            } else {
+                (
+                    context.realm().environment().clone(),
+                    context.realm().scope().clone(),
+                )
+            };
 
-        let lex_env = context.vm.environments.current_compile_environment();
-        let lex_env = Rc::new(CompileTimeEnvironment::new(lex_env, strict));
+        let lexical_scope = lexical_scope.unwrap_or(context.realm().scope().clone());
+        let lexical_scope = Scope::new(lexical_scope, strict);
 
         let mut annex_b_function_names = Vec::new();
 
@@ -241,8 +250,12 @@ impl Eval {
             &mut annex_b_function_names,
             &body,
             strict,
-            if strict { &lex_env } else { &var_env },
-            &lex_env,
+            if strict {
+                &lexical_scope
+            } else {
+                &variable_scope
+            },
+            &lexical_scope,
             context,
         )?;
 
@@ -252,8 +265,8 @@ impl Eval {
             js_string!("<main>"),
             body.strict(),
             false,
-            var_env.clone(),
-            lex_env.clone(),
+            variable_scope.clone(),
+            lexical_scope.clone(),
             false,
             false,
             context.interner_mut(),
@@ -262,23 +275,36 @@ impl Eval {
 
         compiler.current_open_environments_count += 1;
 
-        let env_index = compiler.constants.len() as u32;
+        let scope_index = compiler.constants.len() as u32;
         compiler
             .constants
-            .push(crate::vm::Constant::CompileTimeEnvironment(lex_env.clone()));
+            .push(Constant::Scope(lexical_scope.clone()));
 
-        compiler.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
+        compiler.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
         if strict {
-            var_env = lex_env.clone();
-            compiler.variable_environment = lex_env.clone();
+            variable_scope = lexical_scope.clone();
+            compiler.variable_scope = lexical_scope.clone();
         }
 
         #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
         {
-            compiler.annex_b_function_names = annex_b_function_names;
+            compiler
+                .annex_b_function_names
+                .clone_from(&annex_b_function_names);
         }
 
-        compiler.eval_declaration_instantiation(&body, strict, &var_env, &lex_env);
+        let bindings = body
+            .analyze_scope_eval(
+                strict,
+                &variable_scope,
+                &lexical_scope,
+                &annex_b_function_names,
+                compiler.interner(),
+            )
+            .map_err(|e| JsNativeError::syntax().with_message(e))?;
+
+        compiler.eval_declaration_instantiation(&body, strict, &variable_scope, bindings);
+
         compiler.compile_statement_list(body.statements(), true, false);
 
         let code_block = Gc::new(compiler.finish());
diff --git a/core/engine/src/builtins/function/arguments.rs b/core/engine/src/builtins/function/arguments.rs
index e863058223..83fd821287 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/builtins/function/arguments.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/builtins/function/arguments.rs
@@ -79,6 +79,7 @@ impl UnmappedArguments {
 /// This struct stores all the data to access mapped function parameters in their environment.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Trace, Finalize)]
 pub(crate) struct MappedArguments {
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
     binding_indices: Vec<Option<u32>>,
     environment: Gc<DeclarativeEnvironment>,
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/builtins/function/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/builtins/function/mod.rs
index a94022b2ad..8c4967e564 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/builtins/function/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/builtins/function/mod.rs
@@ -17,10 +17,7 @@ use crate::{
     },
     bytecompiler::FunctionCompiler,
     context::intrinsics::{Intrinsics, StandardConstructor, StandardConstructors},
-    environments::{
-        BindingLocatorEnvironment, EnvironmentStack, FunctionSlots, PrivateEnvironment,
-        ThisBindingStatus,
-    },
+    environments::{EnvironmentStack, FunctionSlots, PrivateEnvironment, ThisBindingStatus},
     error::JsNativeError,
     js_string,
     native_function::NativeFunctionObject,
@@ -45,6 +42,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
         all_private_identifiers_valid, bound_names, contains, lexically_declared_names,
         ContainsSymbol,
     },
+    scope::BindingLocatorScope,
 };
 use boa_gc::{self, custom_trace, Finalize, Gc, Trace};
 use boa_interner::Sym;
@@ -408,6 +406,8 @@ impl BuiltInFunctionObject {
             new_target.clone()
         };
 
+        let strict = context.is_strict();
+
         let default = if r#async && generator {
             // 5. Else,
             //     a. Assert: kind is async-generator.
@@ -635,6 +635,14 @@ impl BuiltInFunctionObject {
             body
         };
 
+        let mut function =
+            boa_ast::function::FunctionExpression::new(None, parameters, body, false);
+        if !function.analyze_scope(strict, context.realm().scope(), context.interner()) {
+            return Err(JsNativeError::syntax()
+                .with_message("failed to analyze function scope")
+                .into());
+        }
+
         let in_with = context.vm.environments.has_object_environment();
         let code = FunctionCompiler::new()
             .name(js_string!("anonymous"))
@@ -642,10 +650,11 @@ impl BuiltInFunctionObject {
             .r#async(r#async)
             .in_with(in_with)
             .compile(
-                &parameters,
-                &body,
-                context.realm().environment().compile_env(),
-                context.realm().environment().compile_env(),
+                function.parameters(),
+                function.body(),
+                context.realm().scope().clone(),
+                context.realm().scope().clone(),
+                function.scopes(),
                 context.interner_mut(),
             );
 
@@ -1008,12 +1017,9 @@ pub(crate) fn function_call(
     let mut last_env = 0;
 
     if code.has_binding_identifier() {
-        let index = context
-            .vm
-            .environments
-            .push_lexical(code.constant_compile_time_environment(last_env));
+        let index = context.vm.environments.push_lexical(1);
         context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index),
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index),
             0,
             function_object.clone().into(),
         );
@@ -1021,7 +1027,7 @@ pub(crate) fn function_call(
     }
 
     context.vm.environments.push_function(
-        code.constant_compile_time_environment(last_env),
+        code.constant_scope(last_env),
         FunctionSlots::new(this, function_object.clone(), None),
     );
 
@@ -1101,12 +1107,9 @@ fn function_construct(
     let mut last_env = 0;
 
     if code.has_binding_identifier() {
-        let index = context
-            .vm
-            .environments
-            .push_lexical(code.constant_compile_time_environment(last_env));
+        let index = context.vm.environments.push_lexical(1);
         context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index),
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index),
             0,
             this_function_object.clone().into(),
         );
@@ -1114,7 +1117,7 @@ fn function_construct(
     }
 
     context.vm.environments.push_function(
-        code.constant_compile_time_environment(last_env),
+        code.constant_scope(last_env),
         FunctionSlots::new(
             this.clone().map_or(ThisBindingStatus::Uninitialized, |o| {
                 ThisBindingStatus::Initialized(o.into())
diff --git a/core/engine/src/builtins/json/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/builtins/json/mod.rs
index 08dcdd7d54..ce4af91bad 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/builtins/json/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/builtins/json/mod.rs
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 use std::{borrow::Cow, iter::once};
 
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use boa_macros::{js_str, utf16};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 
@@ -111,15 +112,15 @@ impl Json {
         // 10. Assert: unfiltered is either a String, Number, Boolean, Null, or an Object that is defined by either an ArrayLiteral or an ObjectLiteral.
         let mut parser = Parser::new(Source::from_bytes(&script_string));
         parser.set_json_parse();
-        let script = parser.parse_script(context.interner_mut())?;
+        let script = parser.parse_script(&Scope::new_global(), context.interner_mut())?;
         let code_block = {
             let in_with = context.vm.environments.has_object_environment();
             let mut compiler = ByteCompiler::new(
                 js_string!("<main>"),
                 script.strict(),
                 true,
-                context.realm().environment().compile_env(),
-                context.realm().environment().compile_env(),
+                context.realm().scope().clone(),
+                context.realm().scope().clone(),
                 false,
                 false,
                 context.interner_mut(),
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/class.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/class.rs
index 81bfd1178a..bfc6900229 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/class.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/class.rs
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
         FunctionExpression,
     },
     property::{MethodDefinitionKind, PropertyName},
+    scope::Scope,
     Expression,
 };
 use boa_gc::Gc;
@@ -32,6 +33,7 @@ pub(crate) struct ClassSpec<'a> {
     constructor: Option<&'a FunctionExpression>,
     elements: &'a [ClassElement],
     has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    name_scope: Option<&'a Scope>,
 }
 
 impl<'a> From<&'a ClassDeclaration> for ClassSpec<'a> {
@@ -42,6 +44,7 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ClassDeclaration> for ClassSpec<'a> {
             constructor: class.constructor(),
             elements: class.elements(),
             has_binding_identifier: true,
+            name_scope: Some(class.name_scope()),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -54,6 +57,7 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ClassExpression> for ClassSpec<'a> {
             constructor: class.constructor(),
             elements: class.elements(),
             has_binding_identifier: class.name().is_some(),
+            name_scope: class.name_scope(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -75,13 +79,11 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             .map_or(Sym::EMPTY_STRING, Identifier::sym)
             .to_js_string(self.interner());
 
-        let old_lex_env = if class.has_binding_identifier {
-            let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-            self.lexical_environment
-                .create_immutable_binding(class_name.clone(), true);
-            Some(old_lex_env)
+        let outer_scope = if let Some(name_scope) = class.name_scope {
+            let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(name_scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
+            Some(outer_scope)
         } else {
             None
         };
@@ -90,8 +92,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             class_name.clone(),
             true,
             self.json_parse,
-            self.variable_environment.clone(),
-            self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+            self.variable_scope.clone(),
+            self.lexical_scope.clone(),
             false,
             false,
             self.interner,
@@ -100,10 +102,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         compiler.code_block_flags |= CodeBlockFlags::IS_CLASS_CONSTRUCTOR;
 
-        // Function environment
-        let _ = compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
-
         if let Some(expr) = &class.constructor {
+            let _ = compiler.push_scope(expr.scopes().function_scope());
+
             compiler.length = expr.parameters().length();
             compiler.params = expr.parameters().clone();
 
@@ -113,15 +114,20 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 false,
                 true,
                 false,
+                expr.scopes(),
             );
 
-            compiler.compile_statement_list(expr.body().statements(), false, false);
+            compiler.compile_statement_list(expr.body().statement_list(), false, false);
 
             compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
         } else if class.super_ref.is_some() {
+            // We push an empty, unused function scope since the compiler expects a function scope.
+            let _ = compiler.push_scope(&Scope::new(compiler.lexical_scope.clone(), true));
             compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::SuperCallDerived);
             compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::BindThisValue);
         } else {
+            // We push an empty, unused function scope since the compiler expects a function scope.
+            let _ = compiler.push_scope(&Scope::new(compiler.lexical_scope.clone(), true));
             compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
         }
         compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetReturnValue);
@@ -157,8 +163,12 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         self.emit_u32(index);
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, _)
-                | ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, _) => {
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    count += 1;
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_private_name(*field.name());
+                    self.emit_u32(index);
+                }
+                ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(name, _) => {
                     count += 1;
                     let index = self.get_or_insert_private_name(*name);
                     self.emit_u32(index);
@@ -171,7 +181,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         let mut static_elements = Vec::new();
         let mut static_field_name_count = 0;
 
-        if old_lex_env.is_some() {
+        if outer_scope.is_some() {
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Dup);
             self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, class_name.clone());
         }
@@ -258,9 +268,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Swap);
                     }
                 }
-                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, field) => {
+                ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field) => {
                     self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Dup);
-                    match name {
+                    match field.name() {
                         PropertyName::Literal(name) => {
                             self.emit_push_literal(Literal::String(
                                 self.interner().resolve_expect(*name).into_common(false),
@@ -274,8 +284,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         js_string!(),
                         true,
                         self.json_parse,
-                        self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                        self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                        self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                        self.lexical_scope.clone(),
                         false,
                         false,
                         self.interner,
@@ -283,8 +293,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     );
 
                     // Function environment
-                    let _ = field_compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
-                    let is_anonymous_function = if let Some(node) = field {
+                    let _ = field_compiler.push_scope(field.scope());
+                    let is_anonymous_function = if let Some(node) = &field.field() {
                         field_compiler.compile_expr(node, true);
                         node.is_anonymous_function_definition()
                     } else {
@@ -303,22 +313,22 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         &[Operand::Bool(is_anonymous_function)],
                     );
                 }
-                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, field) => {
+                ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(field) => {
                     self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Dup);
-                    let name_index = self.get_or_insert_private_name(*name);
+                    let name_index = self.get_or_insert_private_name(*field.name());
                     let mut field_compiler = ByteCompiler::new(
                         class_name.clone(),
                         true,
                         self.json_parse,
-                        self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                        self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                        self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                        self.lexical_scope.clone(),
                         false,
                         false,
                         self.interner,
                         self.in_with,
                     );
-                    let _ = field_compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
-                    if let Some(node) = field {
+                    let _ = field_compiler.push_scope(field.scope());
+                    if let Some(node) = field.field() {
                         field_compiler.compile_expr(node, true);
                     } else {
                         field_compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
@@ -332,8 +342,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetFunction, index);
                     self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushClassFieldPrivate, name_index);
                 }
-                ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, field) => {
-                    let name_index = match name {
+                ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    let name_index = match field.name() {
                         PropertyName::Literal(name) => {
                             Some(self.get_or_insert_name((*name).into()))
                         }
@@ -351,15 +361,15 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         class_name.clone(),
                         true,
                         self.json_parse,
-                        self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                        self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                        self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                        self.lexical_scope.clone(),
                         false,
                         false,
                         self.interner,
                         self.in_with,
                     );
-                    let _ = field_compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
-                    let is_anonymous_function = if let Some(node) = field {
+                    let _ = field_compiler.push_scope(field.scope());
+                    let is_anonymous_function = if let Some(node) = &field.field() {
                         field_compiler.compile_expr(node, true);
                         node.is_anonymous_function_definition()
                     } else {
@@ -389,29 +399,34 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     let index = self.get_or_insert_private_name(*name);
                     self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefinePrivateField, index);
                 }
-                ClassElement::StaticBlock(body) => {
+                ClassElement::StaticBlock(block) => {
                     let mut compiler = ByteCompiler::new(
                         Sym::EMPTY_STRING.to_js_string(self.interner()),
                         true,
                         false,
-                        self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                        self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                        self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                        self.lexical_scope.clone(),
                         false,
                         false,
                         self.interner,
                         self.in_with,
                     );
-                    let _ = compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
+                    let _ = compiler.push_scope(block.scopes().function_scope());
 
                     compiler.function_declaration_instantiation(
-                        body,
+                        block.statements(),
                         &FormalParameterList::default(),
                         false,
                         true,
                         false,
+                        block.scopes(),
                     );
 
-                    compiler.compile_statement_list(body.statements(), false, false);
+                    compiler.compile_statement_list(
+                        block.statements().statement_list(),
+                        false,
+                        false,
+                    );
 
                     let code = Gc::new(compiler.finish());
                     static_elements.push(StaticElement::StaticBlock(code));
@@ -459,9 +474,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Swap);
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Pop);
 
-        if let Some(old_lex_env) = old_lex_env {
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/declarations.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/declarations.rs
index 439e7de5a2..e040c99a5d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/declarations.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/declarations.rs
@@ -1,13 +1,10 @@
-use std::rc::Rc;
-
 use crate::{
     bytecompiler::{ByteCompiler, FunctionCompiler, FunctionSpec, NodeKind},
-    environments::CompileTimeEnvironment,
     vm::{BindingOpcode, Opcode},
     Context, JsNativeError, JsResult,
 };
 use boa_ast::{
-    declaration::{Binding, LexicalDeclaration, VariableList},
+    declaration::Binding,
     expression::Identifier,
     function::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody},
     operations::{
@@ -15,8 +12,10 @@ use boa_ast::{
         lexically_scoped_declarations, var_declared_names, var_scoped_declarations,
         LexicallyScopedDeclaration, VarScopedDeclaration,
     },
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
+    scope_analyzer::EvalDeclarationBindings,
     visitor::NodeRef,
-    Declaration, Script, StatementListItem,
+    Script,
 };
 use boa_interner::{JStrRef, Sym};
 
@@ -40,7 +39,7 @@ use super::{Operand, ToJsString};
 pub(crate) fn global_declaration_instantiation_context(
     _annex_b_function_names: &mut Vec<Identifier>,
     _script: &Script,
-    _env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+    _env: &Scope,
     _context: &mut Context,
 ) -> JsResult<()> {
     Ok(())
@@ -59,7 +58,7 @@ pub(crate) fn global_declaration_instantiation_context(
 pub(crate) fn global_declaration_instantiation_context(
     annex_b_function_names: &mut Vec<Identifier>,
     script: &Script,
-    env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+    env: &Scope,
     context: &mut Context,
 ) -> JsResult<()> {
     // SKIP: 1. Let lexNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of script.
@@ -202,8 +201,8 @@ pub(crate) fn eval_declaration_instantiation_context(
     #[allow(unused, clippy::ptr_arg)] annex_b_function_names: &mut Vec<Identifier>,
     body: &Script,
     #[allow(unused)] strict: bool,
-    #[allow(unused)] var_env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-    #[allow(unused)] lex_env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+    #[allow(unused)] var_env: &Scope,
+    #[allow(unused)] lex_env: &Scope,
     context: &mut Context,
 ) -> JsResult<()> {
     // SKIP: 3. If strict is false, then
@@ -293,7 +292,7 @@ pub(crate) fn eval_declaration_instantiation_context(
 
                 // 3. Assert: The following loop will terminate.
                 // 4. Repeat, while thisEnv is not varEnv,
-                while this_env.environment_index() != lex_env.environment_index() {
+                while this_env.scope_index() != lex_env.scope_index() {
                     let f = f.to_js_string(context.interner());
 
                     // a. If thisEnv is not an Object Environment Record, then
@@ -381,29 +380,15 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     ///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
     ///
     /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-globaldeclarationinstantiation
-    pub(crate) fn global_declaration_instantiation(
-        &mut self,
-        script: &Script,
-        env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-    ) {
+    pub(crate) fn global_declaration_instantiation(&mut self, script: &Script) {
         // 1. Let lexNames be the LexicallyDeclaredNames of script.
         let lex_names = lexically_declared_names(script);
 
         // 2. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of script.
-        let var_names = var_declared_names(script);
-
         // 3. For each element name of lexNames, do
         for name in lex_names {
             let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
 
-            // Note: Our implementation differs from the spec here.
-            // a. If env.HasVarDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
-            // b. If env.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
-            if env.has_binding(&name) {
-                self.emit_syntax_error("duplicate lexical declaration");
-                return;
-            }
-
             // c. Let hasRestrictedGlobal be ? env.HasRestrictedGlobalProperty(name).
             let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
             self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::HasRestrictedGlobalProperty, index);
@@ -414,17 +399,6 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             self.patch_jump(exit);
         }
 
-        // 4. For each element name of varNames, do
-        for name in var_names {
-            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-            // a. If env.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
-            if env.has_lex_binding(&name) {
-                self.emit_syntax_error("duplicate lexical declaration");
-                return;
-            }
-        }
-
         // 5. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of script.
         // Note: VarScopedDeclarations for a Script node is TopLevelVarScopedDeclarations.
         let var_declarations = var_scoped_declarations(script);
@@ -502,67 +476,42 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             }
         }
 
-        // NOTE: These steps depend on the global object are done before bytecode compilation.
-        //
-        // SKIP: 11. NOTE: No abnormal terminations occur after this algorithm step if the global object is an ordinary object.
-        //     However, if the global object is a Proxy exotic object it may exhibit behaviours
-        //     that cause abnormal terminations in some of the following steps.
-        // SKIP: 12. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.2 adds additional steps at this point.
-        // SKIP: 12. Perform the following steps:
-        // SKIP: a. Let strict be IsStrict of script.
-        // SKIP: b. If strict is false, then
-
-        // 13. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of script.
-        // 14. Let privateEnv be null.
-        // 15. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
-        for statement in &**script.statements() {
-            // a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
-            // b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-            //     i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
-            //         1. Perform ? env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
-            //     ii. Else,
-            //         1. Perform ? env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
-            if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
-                match declaration {
-                    Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(class) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => {}
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
         // 16. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
         for function in functions_to_initialize {
             // a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
-            let (name, generator, r#async, parameters, body) = match &function {
-                VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), false, false, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), true, false, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), false, true, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), true, true, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
+            let (name, generator, r#async, parameters, body, scopes) = match &function {
+                VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    false,
+                    false,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    true,
+                    false,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    false,
+                    true,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    true,
+                    true,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
                 VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(_) => continue,
             };
 
@@ -572,12 +521,12 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 .r#async(r#async)
                 .strict(self.strict())
                 .in_with(self.in_with)
-                .binding_identifier(None)
                 .compile(
                     parameters,
                     body,
-                    self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                    self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                    self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                    self.lexical_scope.clone(),
+                    &scopes,
                     self.interner,
                 );
 
@@ -614,51 +563,13 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     ///  - [ECMAScript reference][spec]
     ///
     /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-blockdeclarationinstantiation
-    pub(crate) fn block_declaration_instantiation<'a, N>(
-        &mut self,
-        block: &'a N,
-        env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-    ) where
+    pub(crate) fn block_declaration_instantiation<'a, N>(&mut self, block: &'a N)
+    where
         &'a N: Into<NodeRef<'a>>,
     {
         // 1. Let declarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
         let declarations = lexically_scoped_declarations(block);
 
-        // 2. Let privateEnv be the running execution context's PrivateEnvironment.
-        // Note: Private environments are currently handled differently.
-
-        // 3. For each element d of declarations, do
-        for d in &declarations {
-            // i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
-            if let LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Const(d)) = d
-            {
-                // a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-                for dn in bound_names::<'_, VariableList>(d) {
-                    // 1. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
-                    let dn = dn.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    env.create_immutable_binding(dn, true);
-                }
-            }
-            // ii. Else,
-            else {
-                // a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-                for dn in d.bound_names() {
-                    let dn = dn.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-                    #[cfg(not(feature = "annex-b"))]
-                    // 1. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false). NOTE: This step is replaced in section B.3.2.6.
-                    env.create_mutable_binding(dn, false);
-
-                    #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
-                    // 1. If ! env.HasBinding(dn) is false, then
-                    if !env.has_binding(&dn) {
-                        // a. Perform  ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
-                        env.create_mutable_binding(dn, false);
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
         // Note: Not sure if the spec is wrong here or if our implementation just differs too much,
         //       but we need 3.a to be finished for all declarations before 3.b can be done.
 
@@ -697,65 +608,14 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     pub(crate) fn eval_declaration_instantiation(
         &mut self,
         body: &Script,
-        strict: bool,
-        var_env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-        lex_env: &Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+        #[allow(unused_variables)] strict: bool,
+        var_env: &Scope,
+        bindings: EvalDeclarationBindings,
     ) {
         // 2. Let varDeclarations be the VarScopedDeclarations of body.
         let var_declarations = var_scoped_declarations(body);
 
-        // 3. If strict is false, then
-        if !strict {
-            // 1. Let varNames be the VarDeclaredNames of body.
-            let var_names = var_declared_names(body);
-
-            // a. If varEnv is a Global Environment Record, then
-            if var_env.is_global() {
-                // i. For each element name of varNames, do
-                for name in &var_names {
-                    let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-                    // 1. If varEnv.HasLexicalDeclaration(name) is true, throw a SyntaxError exception.
-                    // 2. NOTE: eval will not create a global var declaration that would be shadowed by a global lexical declaration.
-                    if var_env.has_lex_binding(&name) {
-                        self.emit_syntax_error("duplicate lexical declaration");
-                        return;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            // b. Let thisEnv be lexEnv.
-            let mut this_env = lex_env.clone();
-
-            // c. Assert: The following loop will terminate.
-            // d. Repeat, while thisEnv is not varEnv,
-            while this_env.environment_index() != var_env.environment_index() {
-                // i. If thisEnv is not an Object Environment Record, then
-                // 1. NOTE: The environment of with statements cannot contain any lexical
-                //    declaration so it doesn't need to be checked for var/let hoisting conflicts.
-                // 2. For each element name of varNames, do
-                for name in &var_names {
-                    let name = self.interner().resolve_expect(name.sym()).utf16().into();
-
-                    // a. If ! thisEnv.HasBinding(name) is true, then
-                    if this_env.has_binding(&name) {
-                        // i. Throw a SyntaxError exception.
-                        // ii. NOTE: Annex B.3.4 defines alternate semantics for the above step.
-                        let msg = format!("variable declaration {} in eval function already exists as a lexical variable", name.to_std_string_escaped());
-                        self.emit_syntax_error(&msg);
-                        return;
-                    }
-                    // b. NOTE: A direct eval will not hoist var declaration over a like-named lexical declaration.
-                }
-
-                // ii. Set thisEnv to thisEnv.[[OuterEnv]].
-                if let Some(outer) = this_env.outer() {
-                    this_env = outer;
-                } else {
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-        }
+        // SKIP: 3. If strict is false, then
 
         // NOTE: These steps depend on the current environment state are done before bytecode compilation,
         //       in `eval_declaration_instantiation_context`.
@@ -820,18 +680,14 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             // NOTE: This diviates from the specification, we split the first part of defining the annex-b names
             //       in `eval_declaration_instantiation_context`, because it depends on the context.
             if !var_env.is_global() {
-                for name in self.annex_b_function_names.clone() {
-                    let f = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
+                for binding in bindings.new_annex_b_function_names {
                     // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(F).
                     // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
-                    if !var_env.has_binding(&f) {
-                        // i. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(F, true).
-                        // ii. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(F, undefined).
-                        let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(f, true);
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
-                    }
+                    // i. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(F, true).
+                    // ii. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(F, undefined).
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -877,54 +733,43 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         // 15. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of body.
         // 16. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
-        for statement in &**body.statements() {
-            // a. NOTE: Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
-            // b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-            //     i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
-            //         1. Perform ? lexEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
-            //     ii. Else,
-            //         1. Perform ? lexEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
-            if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
-                match declaration {
-                    Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(class) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => {}
-                }
-            }
-        }
 
         // 17. For each Parse Node f of functionsToInitialize, do
         for function in functions_to_initialize {
             // a. Let fn be the sole element of the BoundNames of f.
-            let (name, generator, r#async, parameters, body) = match &function {
-                VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), false, false, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), true, false, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), false, true, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
-                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => {
-                    (f.name(), true, true, f.parameters(), f.body())
-                }
+            let (name, generator, r#async, parameters, body, scopes) = match &function {
+                VarScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    false,
+                    false,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    true,
+                    false,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    false,
+                    true,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
+                VarScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(f) => (
+                    f.name(),
+                    true,
+                    true,
+                    f.parameters(),
+                    f.body(),
+                    f.scopes().clone(),
+                ),
                 VarScopedDeclaration::VariableDeclaration(_) => {
                     continue;
                 }
@@ -936,12 +781,13 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 .r#async(r#async)
                 .strict(self.strict())
                 .in_with(self.in_with)
-                .binding_identifier(Some(name.sym().to_js_string(self.interner())))
+                .name_scope(None)
                 .compile(
                     parameters,
                     body,
-                    self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                    self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                    self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                    self.lexical_scope.clone(),
+                    &scopes,
                     self.interner,
                 );
 
@@ -966,25 +812,24 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 let index = self.push_function_to_constants(code);
                 self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetFunction, index);
 
-                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
                 // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(fn).
-                let binding_exists = var_env.has_binding(&name);
+                let (binding, binding_exists) = bindings
+                    .new_function_names
+                    .get(&name)
+                    .expect("binding must exist");
 
                 // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
                 // iii. Else,
-                if binding_exists {
+                if *binding_exists {
                     // 1. Perform ! varEnv.SetMutableBinding(fn, fo, false).
-                    let binding = var_env.set_mutable_binding(name).expect("must not fail");
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.clone());
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                 } else {
                     // 1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation preceding step 14.
                     // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(fn, true).
                     // 3. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(fn, fo).
-                    let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(name, !strict);
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.clone());
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -1001,24 +846,17 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     &[Operand::Bool(true), Operand::Varying(index)],
                 );
             }
-            // b. Else,
-            else {
-                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-                // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(vn).
-                let binding_exists = var_env.has_binding(&name);
-
-                // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
-                if !binding_exists {
-                    // 1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation preceding step 14.
-                    // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(vn, true).
-                    // 3. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(vn, undefined).
-                    let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(name, true);
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
-                }
-            }
+        }
+        // 18.b
+        for binding in bindings.new_var_names {
+            // i. Let bindingExists be ! varEnv.HasBinding(vn).
+            // ii. If bindingExists is false, then
+            // 1. NOTE: The following invocation cannot return an abrupt completion because of the validation preceding step 14.
+            // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(vn, true).
+            // 3. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(vn, undefined).
+            let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
+            self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
         }
 
         // 19. Return unused.
@@ -1037,6 +875,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         arrow: bool,
         strict: bool,
         generator: bool,
+        scopes: &FunctionScopes,
     ) {
         // 1. Let calleeContext be the running execution context.
         // 2. Let code be func.[[ECMAScriptCode]].
@@ -1123,25 +962,13 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             }
         }
 
-        // 19. If strict is true or hasParameterExpressions is false, then
-        if strict || !has_parameter_expressions {
-            // a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters,
-            //    since calls to eval in strict mode code cannot create new bindings which are visible outside of the eval.
-            // b. Let env be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
+        // 19-20
+        if let Some(scope) = scopes.parameters_eval_scope() {
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
         }
-        // 20. Else,
-        else {
-            // a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that bindings created by
-            //    direct eval calls in the formal parameter list are outside the environment where parameters are declared.
-            // b. Let calleeEnv be the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext.
-            // c. Let env be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(calleeEnv).
-            // d. Assert: The VariableEnvironment of calleeContext is calleeEnv.
-            // e. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to env.
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-        };
 
-        let env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
+        let scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
 
         // 22. If argumentsObjectNeeded is true, then
         //
@@ -1165,44 +992,10 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 self.emitted_mapped_arguments_object_opcode = true;
             }
 
-            // c. If strict is true, then
-            if strict {
-                // i. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding("arguments", false).
-                // ii. NOTE: In strict mode code early errors prevent attempting to assign
-                //           to this binding, so its mutability is not observable.
-                env.create_immutable_binding(arguments.clone(), false);
-            }
-            // d. Else,
-            else {
-                // i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding("arguments", false).
-                env.create_mutable_binding(arguments.clone(), false);
-            }
-
             // e. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding("arguments", ao).
             self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, arguments);
         }
 
-        // 21. For each String paramName of parameterNames, do
-        for param_name in &parameter_names {
-            let param_name = param_name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-            // a. Let alreadyDeclared be ! env.HasBinding(paramName).
-            let already_declared = env.has_binding(&param_name);
-
-            // b. NOTE: Early errors ensure that duplicate parameter names can only occur in non-strict
-            //    functions that do not have parameter default values or rest parameters.
-
-            // c. If alreadyDeclared is false, then
-            if !already_declared {
-                // i. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(paramName, false).
-                env.create_mutable_binding(param_name, false);
-
-                // Note: These steps are not necessary in our implementation.
-                // ii. If hasDuplicates is true, then
-                //     1. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(paramName, undefined).
-            }
-        }
-
         // 22. If argumentsObjectNeeded is true, then
         if arguments_object_needed {
             // MOVED: a-e.
@@ -1257,82 +1050,87 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         // 27. If hasParameterExpressions is false, then
         // 28. Else,
         #[allow(unused_variables, unused_mut)]
-        let (mut instantiated_var_names, mut var_env) = if has_parameter_expressions {
-            // a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that closures created by
-            //          expressions in the formal parameter list do not have
-            //          visibility of declarations in the function body.
-            // b. Let varEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(env).
-            // c. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to varEnv.
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-
-            let mut var_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-
-            // d. Let instantiatedVarNames be a new empty List.
-            let mut instantiated_var_names = Vec::new();
-
-            // e. For each element n of varNames, do
-            for n in var_names {
-                // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
-                if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
-                    // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
-                    instantiated_var_names.push(n);
-
-                    let n_string = n.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-                    // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
-                    let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(n_string.clone(), false);
-
-                    // 3. If parameterBindings does not contain n, or if functionNames contains n, then
-                    if !parameter_bindings.contains(&n) || function_names.contains(&n) {
-                        // a. Let initialValue be undefined.
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                    }
-                    // 4. Else,
-                    else {
-                        // a. Let initialValue be ! env.GetBindingValue(n, false).
-                        let binding = env.get_binding(&n_string).expect("must have binding");
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, index);
-                    }
+        let (mut instantiated_var_names, mut variable_scope) =
+            if let Some(scope) = scopes.parameters_scope() {
+                // a. NOTE: A separate Environment Record is needed to ensure that closures created by
+                //          expressions in the formal parameter list do not have
+                //          visibility of declarations in the function body.
+                // b. Let varEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(env).
+                // c. Set the VariableEnvironment of calleeContext to varEnv.
+                let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
+
+                let mut variable_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+
+                // d. Let instantiatedVarNames be a new empty List.
+                let mut instantiated_var_names = Vec::new();
+
+                // e. For each element n of varNames, do
+                for n in var_names {
+                    // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
+                    if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
+                        // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
+                        instantiated_var_names.push(n);
+
+                        let n_string = n.to_js_string(self.interner());
+
+                        // 2. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
+                        let binding = variable_scope
+                            .get_binding_reference(&n_string)
+                            .expect("must have binding");
+
+                        // 3. If parameterBindings does not contain n, or if functionNames contains n, then
+                        if !parameter_bindings.contains(&n) || function_names.contains(&n) {
+                            // a. Let initialValue be undefined.
+                            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
+                        }
+                        // 4. Else,
+                        else {
+                            // a. Let initialValue be ! env.GetBindingValue(n, false).
+                            let binding = scope
+                                .get_binding_reference(&n_string)
+                                .expect("must have binding");
+                            let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                            self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, &index);
+                        }
 
-                    // 5. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(n, initialValue).
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                        // 5. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(n, initialValue).
+                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
 
-                    // 6. NOTE: A var with the same name as a formal parameter initially has
-                    //          the same value as the corresponding initialized parameter.
+                        // 6. NOTE: A var with the same name as a formal parameter initially has
+                        //          the same value as the corresponding initialized parameter.
+                    }
                 }
-            }
-
-            (instantiated_var_names, var_env)
-        } else {
-            // a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters and top-level vars.
-            // b. Let instantiatedVarNames be a copy of the List parameterBindings.
-            let mut instantiated_var_names = parameter_bindings;
-
-            // c. For each element n of varNames, do
-            for n in var_names {
-                // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
-                if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
-                    // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
-                    instantiated_var_names.push(n);
 
-                    let n = n.to_js_string(self.interner());
-
-                    // 2. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
-                    // 3. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(n, undefined).
-                    let binding = env.create_mutable_binding(n, true);
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                (instantiated_var_names, variable_scope)
+            } else {
+                // a. NOTE: Only a single Environment Record is needed for the parameters and top-level vars.
+                // b. Let instantiatedVarNames be a copy of the List parameterBindings.
+                let mut instantiated_var_names = parameter_bindings;
+
+                // c. For each element n of varNames, do
+                for n in var_names {
+                    // i. If instantiatedVarNames does not contain n, then
+                    if !instantiated_var_names.contains(&n) {
+                        // 1. Append n to instantiatedVarNames.
+                        instantiated_var_names.push(n);
+
+                        let n = n.to_js_string(self.interner());
+
+                        // 2. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(n, false).
+                        // 3. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(n, undefined).
+                        let binding = scope.get_binding_reference(&n).expect("binding must exist");
+                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
+                    }
                 }
-            }
 
-            // d. Let varEnv be env.
-            (instantiated_var_names, env)
-        };
+                // d. Let varEnv be env.
+                (instantiated_var_names, scope)
+            };
 
         // 29. NOTE: Annex B.3.2.1 adds additional steps at this point.
         // 29. If strict is false, then
@@ -1355,10 +1153,12 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
                         // a. Perform ! varEnv.CreateMutableBinding(F, false).
                         // b. Perform ! varEnv.InitializeBinding(F, undefined).
-                        let binding = var_env.create_mutable_binding(f_string, false);
+                        let binding = variable_scope
+                            .get_binding_reference(&f_string)
+                            .expect("binding must exist");
                         let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
                         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
 
                         // c. Append F to instantiatedVarNames.
                         instantiated_var_names.push(f);
@@ -1376,58 +1176,10 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             }
         }
 
-        // 30. If strict is false, then
-        // 31. Else,
-        let lex_env = if strict {
-            // a. Let lexEnv be varEnv.
-            var_env
-        } else {
-            // a. Let lexEnv be NewDeclarativeEnvironment(varEnv).
-            // b. NOTE: Non-strict functions use a separate Environment Record for top-level lexical
-            //    declarations so that a direct eval can determine whether any var scoped declarations
-            //    introduced by the eval code conflict with pre-existing top-level lexically scoped declarations.
-            //    This is not needed for strict functions because a strict direct eval always
-            //    places all declarations into a new Environment Record.
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-            self.lexical_environment.clone()
-        };
-
-        // 32. Set the LexicalEnvironment of calleeContext to lexEnv.
-
-        // 33. Let lexDeclarations be the LexicallyScopedDeclarations of code.
-        // 34. For each element d of lexDeclarations, do
-        //     a. NOTE: A lexically declared name cannot be the same as a function/generator declaration,
-        //        formal parameter, or a var name. Lexically declared names are only instantiated here but not initialized.
-        //     b. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-        //         i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
-        //             1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
-        //         ii. Else,
-        //             1. Perform ! lexEnv.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
-        for statement in &**body.statements() {
-            if let StatementListItem::Declaration(declaration) = statement {
-                match declaration {
-                    Declaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(class) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Let(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(declaration)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(declaration) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            lex_env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
-                        }
-                    }
-                    _ => {}
-                }
-            }
+        // 30-31
+        if let Some(scope) = scopes.lexical_scope() {
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
         }
 
         // 35. Let privateEnv be the PrivateEnvironment of calleeContext.
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/env.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/env.rs
index 8a61adee20..59b65184e3 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/env.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/env.rs
@@ -1,33 +1,28 @@
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
+
 use super::ByteCompiler;
-use crate::environments::CompileTimeEnvironment;
-use std::rc::Rc;
 
 impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
-    /// Push either a new declarative or function environment on the compile time environment stack.
+    /// Push either a new declarative or function scope on the environment stack.
     #[must_use]
-    pub(crate) fn push_compile_environment(&mut self, function_scope: bool) -> u32 {
+    pub(crate) fn push_scope(&mut self, scope: &Scope) -> u32 {
         self.current_open_environments_count += 1;
 
-        let env = Rc::new(CompileTimeEnvironment::new(
-            self.lexical_environment.clone(),
-            function_scope,
-        ));
-
         let index = self.constants.len() as u32;
         self.constants
-            .push(crate::vm::Constant::CompileTimeEnvironment(env.clone()));
+            .push(crate::vm::Constant::Scope(scope.clone()));
 
-        if function_scope {
-            self.variable_environment = env.clone();
+        if scope.is_function() {
+            self.variable_scope = scope.clone();
         }
 
-        self.lexical_environment = env;
+        self.lexical_scope = scope.clone();
 
         index
     }
 
-    /// Pops the top compile time environment and returns its index in the compile time environments array.
-    pub(crate) fn pop_compile_environment(&mut self) {
+    /// Pops the top scope.
+    pub(crate) fn pop_scope(&mut self) {
         self.current_open_environments_count -= 1;
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/assign.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/assign.rs
index 12d3644dc7..f6743a9cf9 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/assign.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/assign.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,13 @@
 use crate::{
     bytecompiler::{Access, ByteCompiler, Operand, ToJsString},
-    environments::BindingLocatorError,
     vm::{BindingOpcode, Opcode},
 };
-use boa_ast::expression::{
-    access::{PropertyAccess, PropertyAccessField},
-    operator::{assign::AssignOp, Assign},
+use boa_ast::{
+    expression::{
+        access::{PropertyAccess, PropertyAccessField},
+        operator::{assign::AssignOp, Assign},
+    },
+    scope::BindingLocatorError,
 };
 
 impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
@@ -57,15 +59,14 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 Access::Variable { name } => {
                     let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
 
-                    let binding = self
-                        .lexical_environment
-                        .get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
+                    let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
+                    let is_lexical = binding.is_lexical();
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
 
-                    if binding.is_lexical() {
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, index);
+                    if is_lexical {
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, &index);
                     } else {
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetNameAndLocator, index);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetNameAndLocator, &index);
                     }
 
                     if short_circuit {
@@ -78,11 +79,11 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     if use_expr {
                         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Dup);
                     }
-                    if binding.is_lexical() {
-                        match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
+                    if is_lexical {
+                        match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
                             Ok(binding) => {
                                 let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
+                                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                             }
                             Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
                                 let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
@@ -93,7 +94,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                             }
                         }
                     } else {
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetNameByLocator);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetNameByLocator, &index);
                     }
                 }
                 Access::Property { access } => match access {
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/object_literal.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/object_literal.rs
index faa165ec4c..803e5e54a7 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/object_literal.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/object_literal.rs
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                                 MethodKind::Set => Opcode::SetPropertySetterByName,
                                 MethodKind::Ordinary => Opcode::DefineOwnPropertyByName,
                             };
-                            self.object_method((m, *name).into(), kind);
+                            self.object_method(m.into(), kind);
                             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetHomeObject);
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_name((*name).into());
                             self.emit_with_varying_operand(opcode, index);
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/unary.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/unary.rs
index d5e380afce..298e80ae4c 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/unary.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/unary.rs
@@ -28,11 +28,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 match unary.target().flatten() {
                     Expression::Identifier(identifier) => {
                         let identifier = identifier.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        let binding = self
-                            .lexical_environment
-                            .get_identifier_reference(identifier);
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetNameOrUndefined, index);
+                        let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(identifier);
+                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetNameOrUndefined, &index);
                     }
                     expr => self.compile_expr(expr, true),
                 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/update.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/update.rs
index 7fd0b986ca..dd56788d64 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/update.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/expression/update.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,13 @@
 use crate::{
     bytecompiler::{Access, ByteCompiler, Operand, ToJsString},
-    environments::BindingLocatorError,
     vm::Opcode,
 };
-use boa_ast::expression::{
-    access::{PropertyAccess, PropertyAccessField},
-    operator::{update::UpdateOp, Update},
+use boa_ast::{
+    expression::{
+        access::{PropertyAccess, PropertyAccessField},
+        operator::{update::UpdateOp, Update},
+    },
+    scope::BindingLocatorError,
 };
 
 impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
@@ -24,15 +26,14 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         match Access::from_update_target(update.target()) {
             Access::Variable { name } => {
                 let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                let binding = self
-                    .lexical_environment
-                    .get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
-                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
+                let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
+                let is_lexical = binding.is_lexical();
+                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
 
-                if binding.is_lexical() {
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, index);
+                if is_lexical {
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, &index);
                 } else {
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetNameAndLocator, index);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetNameAndLocator, &index);
                 }
 
                 self.emit_opcode(opcode);
@@ -42,11 +43,11 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Dup);
                 }
 
-                if binding.is_lexical() {
-                    match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
+                if is_lexical {
+                    match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
                         Ok(binding) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
+                            self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                         }
                         Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
@@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                         }
                     }
                 } else {
-                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetNameByLocator);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetNameByLocator, &index);
                 }
             }
             Access::Property { access } => match access {
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/function.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/function.rs
index b06fcf7006..3fef0a612d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/function.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/function.rs
@@ -1,14 +1,14 @@
-use std::rc::Rc;
-
 use crate::{
     builtins::function::ThisMode,
     bytecompiler::ByteCompiler,
-    environments::CompileTimeEnvironment,
     js_string,
     vm::{CodeBlock, CodeBlockFlags, Opcode},
     JsString,
 };
-use boa_ast::function::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody};
+use boa_ast::{
+    function::{FormalParameterList, FunctionBody},
+    scope::{FunctionScopes, Scope},
+};
 use boa_gc::Gc;
 use boa_interner::Interner;
 
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ pub(crate) struct FunctionCompiler {
     arrow: bool,
     method: bool,
     in_with: bool,
-    binding_identifier: Option<JsString>,
+    name_scope: Option<Scope>,
 }
 
 impl FunctionCompiler {
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
             arrow: false,
             method: false,
             in_with: false,
-            binding_identifier: None,
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 
@@ -81,9 +81,9 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
         self
     }
 
-    /// Indicate if the function has a binding identifier.
-    pub(crate) fn binding_identifier(mut self, binding_identifier: Option<JsString>) -> Self {
-        self.binding_identifier = binding_identifier;
+    /// Provide the name scope of the function.
+    pub(crate) fn name_scope(mut self, name_scope: Option<Scope>) -> Self {
+        self.name_scope = name_scope;
         self
     }
 
@@ -98,8 +98,9 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
         mut self,
         parameters: &FormalParameterList,
         body: &FunctionBody,
-        variable_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-        lexical_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+        variable_environment: Scope,
+        lexical_environment: Scope,
+        scopes: &FunctionScopes,
         interner: &mut Interner,
     ) -> Gc<CodeBlock> {
         self.strict = self.strict || body.strict();
@@ -127,16 +128,12 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
             compiler.this_mode = ThisMode::Lexical;
         }
 
-        if let Some(binding_identifier) = self.binding_identifier {
+        if let Some(scope) = self.name_scope {
             compiler.code_block_flags |= CodeBlockFlags::HAS_BINDING_IDENTIFIER;
-            let _ = compiler.push_compile_environment(false);
-            compiler
-                .lexical_environment
-                .create_immutable_binding(binding_identifier, self.strict);
+            let _ = compiler.push_scope(&scope);
         }
-
         // Function environment
-        let _ = compiler.push_compile_environment(true);
+        let _ = compiler.push_scope(scopes.function_scope());
 
         // Taken from:
         //  - 15.9.3 Runtime Semantics: EvaluateAsyncConciseBody: <https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-runtime-semantics-evaluateasyncconcisebody>
@@ -169,6 +166,7 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
             self.arrow,
             self.strict,
             self.generator,
+            scopes,
         );
 
         // Taken from:
@@ -184,10 +182,12 @@ impl FunctionCompiler {
             }
         }
 
-        compiler.compile_statement_list(body.statements(), false, false);
+        compiler.compile_statement_list(body.statement_list(), false, false);
 
         compiler.params = parameters.clone();
 
-        Gc::new(compiler.finish())
+        let code = compiler.finish();
+
+        Gc::new(code)
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/mod.rs
index 74073baf20..da428e4e2d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/mod.rs
@@ -12,11 +12,10 @@ mod register;
 mod statement;
 mod utils;
 
-use std::{cell::Cell, rc::Rc};
+use std::cell::Cell;
 
 use crate::{
     builtins::function::{arguments::MappedArguments, ThisMode},
-    environments::{BindingLocator, BindingLocatorError, CompileTimeEnvironment},
     js_string,
     vm::{
         BindingOpcode, CallFrame, CodeBlock, CodeBlockFlags, Constant, GeneratorResumeKind,
@@ -41,6 +40,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
     operations::returns_value,
     pattern::Pattern,
     property::MethodDefinitionKind,
+    scope::{BindingLocator, BindingLocatorError, FunctionScopes, IdentifierReference, Scope},
     Declaration, Expression, Statement, StatementList, StatementListItem,
 };
 use boa_gc::Gc;
@@ -120,7 +120,8 @@ pub(crate) struct FunctionSpec<'a> {
     pub(crate) name: Option<Identifier>,
     parameters: &'a FormalParameterList,
     body: &'a FunctionBody,
-    pub(crate) has_binding_identifier: bool,
+    pub(crate) scopes: &'a FunctionScopes,
+    pub(crate) name_scope: Option<&'a Scope>,
 }
 
 impl<'a> From<&'a FunctionDeclaration> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
@@ -130,7 +131,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a FunctionDeclaration> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: Some(function.name()),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: true,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -142,7 +144,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a GeneratorDeclaration> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: Some(function.name()),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: true,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -154,7 +157,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a AsyncFunctionDeclaration> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: Some(function.name()),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: true,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -166,7 +170,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a AsyncGeneratorDeclaration> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: Some(function.name()),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: true,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -178,7 +183,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a FunctionExpression> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: function.has_binding_identifier(),
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: function.name_scope(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -190,7 +196,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ArrowFunction> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: false,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -202,7 +209,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a AsyncArrowFunction> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: false,
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -214,7 +222,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a AsyncFunctionExpression> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: function.has_binding_identifier(),
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: function.name_scope(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -226,7 +235,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a GeneratorExpression> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: function.has_binding_identifier(),
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: function.name_scope(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -238,7 +248,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a AsyncGeneratorExpression> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: function.name(),
             parameters: function.parameters(),
             body: function.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: function.has_binding_identifier(),
+            scopes: function.scopes(),
+            name_scope: function.name_scope(),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -257,7 +268,8 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ClassMethodDefinition> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
             name: None,
             parameters: method.parameters(),
             body: method.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: false,
+            scopes: method.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -273,29 +285,11 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ObjectMethodDefinition> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
 
         FunctionSpec {
             kind,
-            name: None,
+            name: method.name().literal().map(Into::into),
             parameters: method.parameters(),
             body: method.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: false,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl<'a> From<(&'a ObjectMethodDefinition, Sym)> for FunctionSpec<'a> {
-    fn from(method: (&'a ObjectMethodDefinition, Sym)) -> Self {
-        let kind = match method.0.kind() {
-            MethodDefinitionKind::Generator => FunctionKind::Generator,
-            MethodDefinitionKind::AsyncGenerator => FunctionKind::AsyncGenerator,
-            MethodDefinitionKind::Async => FunctionKind::Async,
-            _ => FunctionKind::Ordinary,
-        };
-
-        FunctionSpec {
-            kind,
-            name: Some(Identifier::new(method.1)),
-            parameters: method.0.parameters(),
-            body: method.0.body(),
-            has_binding_identifier: true,
+            scopes: method.scopes(),
+            name_scope: None,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -402,11 +396,13 @@ pub struct ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     /// Locators for all bindings in the codeblock.
     pub(crate) bindings: Vec<BindingLocator>,
 
-    /// The current variable environment.
-    pub(crate) variable_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+    pub(crate) local_binding_registers: FxHashMap<IdentifierReference, u32>,
+
+    /// The current variable scope.
+    pub(crate) variable_scope: Scope,
 
-    /// The current lexical environment.
-    pub(crate) lexical_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+    /// The current lexical scope.
+    pub(crate) lexical_scope: Scope,
 
     pub(crate) current_open_environments_count: u32,
     current_stack_value_count: u32,
@@ -436,6 +432,11 @@ pub struct ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     pub(crate) annex_b_function_names: Vec<Identifier>,
 }
 
+pub(crate) enum BindingKind {
+    Stack(u32),
+    Local(u32),
+}
+
 impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     /// Represents a placeholder address that will be patched later.
     const DUMMY_ADDRESS: u32 = u32::MAX;
@@ -449,8 +450,8 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         name: JsString,
         strict: bool,
         json_parse: bool,
-        variable_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-        lexical_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
+        variable_scope: Scope,
+        lexical_scope: Scope,
         is_async: bool,
         is_generator: bool,
         interner: &'ctx mut Interner,
@@ -496,6 +497,7 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             bytecode: Vec::default(),
             constants: ThinVec::default(),
             bindings: Vec::default(),
+            local_binding_registers: FxHashMap::default(),
             this_mode: ThisMode::Global,
             params: FormalParameterList::default(),
             current_open_environments_count: 0,
@@ -512,8 +514,8 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             jump_info: Vec::new(),
             async_handler: None,
             json_parse,
-            variable_environment,
-            lexical_environment,
+            variable_scope,
+            lexical_scope,
             interner,
 
             #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
@@ -581,15 +583,24 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     }
 
     #[inline]
-    pub(crate) fn get_or_insert_binding(&mut self, binding: BindingLocator) -> u32 {
-        if let Some(index) = self.bindings_map.get(&binding) {
-            return *index;
+    pub(crate) fn get_or_insert_binding(&mut self, binding: IdentifierReference) -> BindingKind {
+        if binding.local() {
+            return BindingKind::Local(
+                *self
+                    .local_binding_registers
+                    .entry(binding)
+                    .or_insert_with(|| self.register_allocator.alloc_persistent().index()),
+            );
+        }
+
+        if let Some(index) = self.bindings_map.get(&binding.locator()) {
+            return BindingKind::Stack(*index);
         }
 
         let index = self.bindings.len() as u32;
-        self.bindings.push(binding.clone());
-        self.bindings_map.insert(binding, index);
-        index
+        self.bindings.push(binding.locator().clone());
+        self.bindings_map.insert(binding.locator(), index);
+        BindingKind::Stack(index)
     }
 
     #[inline]
@@ -603,47 +614,43 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     fn emit_binding(&mut self, opcode: BindingOpcode, name: JsString) {
         match opcode {
             BindingOpcode::Var => {
-                let binding = self.variable_environment.get_identifier_reference(name);
+                let binding = self.variable_scope.get_identifier_reference(name);
                 if !binding.locator().is_global() {
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefVar, index);
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefVar, &index);
                 }
             }
-            BindingOpcode::InitVar => {
-                match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
-                    Ok(binding) => {
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
-                    }
-                    Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::ThrowMutateImmutable, index);
-                    }
-                    Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent) => {
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Pop);
-                    }
+            BindingOpcode::InitVar => match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
+                Ok(binding) => {
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
                 }
-            }
+                Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::ThrowMutateImmutable, index);
+                }
+                Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent) => {
+                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Pop);
+                }
+            },
             BindingOpcode::InitLexical => {
-                let binding = self.lexical_environment.get_identifier_reference(name);
-                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, index);
+                let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name);
+                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, &index);
             }
-            BindingOpcode::SetName => {
-                match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
-                    Ok(binding) => {
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
-                    }
-                    Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::ThrowMutateImmutable, index);
-                    }
-                    Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent) => {
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Pop);
-                    }
+            BindingOpcode::SetName => match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
+                Ok(binding) => {
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                 }
-            }
+                Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::ThrowMutateImmutable, index);
+                }
+                Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent) => {
+                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::Pop);
+                }
+            },
         }
     }
 
@@ -706,6 +713,29 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         }
     }
 
+    pub(crate) fn emit_binding_access(&mut self, opcode: Opcode, binding: &BindingKind) {
+        match binding {
+            BindingKind::Stack(index) => match opcode {
+                Opcode::SetNameByLocator => self.emit_opcode(opcode),
+                _ => self.emit_with_varying_operand(opcode, *index),
+            },
+            BindingKind::Local(index) => match opcode {
+                Opcode::GetName | Opcode::GetNameOrUndefined | Opcode::GetNameAndLocator => {
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushFromLocal, *index);
+                }
+                Opcode::GetLocator | Opcode::DefVar => {}
+                Opcode::SetName
+                | Opcode::DefInitVar
+                | Opcode::PutLexicalValue
+                | Opcode::SetNameByLocator => {
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PopIntoLocal, *index);
+                }
+                Opcode::DeleteName => self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushFalse),
+                _ => unreachable!("invalid opcode for binding access"),
+            },
+        }
+    }
+
     pub(crate) fn emit_operand(&mut self, operand: Operand, varying_kind: VaryingOperandKind) {
         match operand {
             Operand::Bool(v) => self.emit_u8(v.into()),
@@ -934,9 +964,9 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         match access {
             Access::Variable { name } => {
                 let name = self.resolve_identifier_expect(name);
-                let binding = self.lexical_environment.get_identifier_reference(name);
-                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, index);
+                let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name);
+                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, &index);
             }
             Access::Property { access } => match access {
                 PropertyAccess::Simple(access) => match access.field() {
@@ -999,13 +1029,12 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         match access {
             Access::Variable { name } => {
                 let name = self.resolve_identifier_expect(name);
-                let binding = self
-                    .lexical_environment
-                    .get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
-                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
+                let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
+                let is_lexical = binding.is_lexical();
+                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
 
-                if !binding.is_lexical() {
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetLocator, index);
+                if !is_lexical {
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetLocator, &index);
                 }
 
                 expr_fn(self, 0);
@@ -1013,11 +1042,11 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
                     self.emit(Opcode::Dup, &[]);
                 }
 
-                if binding.is_lexical() {
-                    match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
+                if is_lexical {
+                    match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()) {
                         Ok(binding) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
+                            self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                         }
                         Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
@@ -1028,7 +1057,7 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
                         }
                     }
                 } else {
-                    self.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetNameByLocator);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetNameByLocator, &index);
                 }
             }
             Access::Property { access } => match access {
@@ -1112,9 +1141,9 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             },
             Access::Variable { name } => {
                 let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                let binding = self.lexical_environment.get_identifier_reference(name);
-                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DeleteName, index);
+                let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name);
+                let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DeleteName, &index);
             }
             Access::This => {
                 self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushTrue);
@@ -1333,13 +1362,11 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
                 Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
                     let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
                     if let Some(expr) = variable.init() {
-                        let binding = self
-                            .lexical_environment
-                            .get_identifier_reference(ident.clone());
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetLocator, index);
+                        let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(ident.clone());
+                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetLocator, &index);
                         self.compile_expr(expr, true);
-                        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::SetNameByLocator);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetNameByLocator, &index);
                     } else {
                         self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::Var, ident);
                     }
@@ -1429,19 +1456,14 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
                 let name = function.name();
                 if self.annex_b_function_names.contains(&name) {
                     let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    let binding = self
-                        .lexical_environment
-                        .get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
-                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, index);
-
-                    match self
-                        .variable_environment
-                        .set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone())
-                    {
+                    let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name.clone());
+                    let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                    self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, &index);
+
+                    match self.variable_scope.set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone()) {
                         Ok(binding) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::SetName, index);
+                            self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::SetName, &index);
                         }
                         Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_string(name);
@@ -1471,7 +1493,8 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
-            has_binding_identifier,
+            scopes,
+            name_scope,
             ..
         } = function;
 
@@ -1481,12 +1504,6 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             Some(js_string!())
         };
 
-        let binding_identifier = if has_binding_identifier {
-            name.clone()
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-
         let code = FunctionCompiler::new()
             .name(name)
             .generator(generator)
@@ -1494,12 +1511,13 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             .strict(self.strict())
             .arrow(arrow)
             .in_with(self.in_with)
-            .binding_identifier(binding_identifier)
+            .name_scope(name_scope.cloned())
             .compile(
                 parameters,
                 body,
-                self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                self.lexical_scope.clone(),
+                scopes,
                 self.interner,
             );
 
@@ -1510,16 +1528,12 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
     /// pushing it to the stack if necessary.
     pub(crate) fn function_with_binding(
         &mut self,
-        mut function: FunctionSpec<'_>,
+        function: FunctionSpec<'_>,
         node_kind: NodeKind,
         use_expr: bool,
     ) {
         let name = function.name;
 
-        if node_kind == NodeKind::Declaration {
-            function.has_binding_identifier = false;
-        }
-
         let index = self.function(function);
         self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetFunction, index);
 
@@ -1550,7 +1564,8 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
-            has_binding_identifier,
+            scopes,
+            name_scope,
             ..
         } = function;
 
@@ -1565,12 +1580,6 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             Some(js_string!())
         };
 
-        let binding_identifier = if has_binding_identifier {
-            name.clone()
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-
         let code = FunctionCompiler::new()
             .name(name)
             .generator(generator)
@@ -1579,12 +1588,13 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             .arrow(arrow)
             .method(true)
             .in_with(self.in_with)
-            .binding_identifier(binding_identifier)
+            .name_scope(name_scope.cloned())
             .compile(
                 parameters,
                 body,
-                self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                self.lexical_scope.clone(),
+                scopes,
                 self.interner,
             );
 
@@ -1603,7 +1613,7 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             name,
             parameters,
             body,
-            has_binding_identifier,
+            scopes,
             ..
         } = function;
 
@@ -1613,12 +1623,6 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             Some(js_string!())
         };
 
-        let binding_identifier = if has_binding_identifier {
-            name.clone()
-        } else {
-            None
-        };
-
         let code = FunctionCompiler::new()
             .name(name)
             .generator(generator)
@@ -1627,12 +1631,13 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             .arrow(arrow)
             .method(true)
             .in_with(self.in_with)
-            .binding_identifier(binding_identifier)
+            .name_scope(function.name_scope.cloned())
             .compile(
                 parameters,
                 body,
-                self.variable_environment.clone(),
-                self.lexical_environment.clone(),
+                self.variable_scope.clone(),
+                self.lexical_scope.clone(),
+                scopes,
                 self.interner,
             );
 
@@ -1669,9 +1674,9 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
 
                     if self.in_with {
                         let name = self.resolve_identifier_expect(*ident);
-                        let binding = self.lexical_environment.get_identifier_reference(name);
-                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding.locator());
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::ThisForObjectEnvironmentName, index);
+                        let binding = self.lexical_scope.get_identifier_reference(name);
+                        let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::ThisForObjectEnvironmentName, &index);
                     } else {
                         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
                     }
@@ -1709,9 +1714,21 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         }
 
         match kind {
-            CallKind::CallEval if contains_spread => self.emit_opcode(Opcode::CallEvalSpread),
             CallKind::CallEval => {
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::CallEval, call.args().len() as u32);
+                let scope_index = self.constants.len() as u32;
+                self.constants
+                    .push(Constant::Scope(self.lexical_scope.clone()));
+                if contains_spread {
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::CallEvalSpread, scope_index);
+                } else {
+                    self.emit(
+                        Opcode::CallEval,
+                        &[
+                            Operand::Varying(call.args().len() as u32),
+                            Operand::Varying(scope_index),
+                        ],
+                    );
+                }
             }
             CallKind::Call if contains_spread => self.emit_opcode(Opcode::CallSpread),
             CallKind::Call => {
@@ -1737,6 +1754,16 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
         }
         self.r#return(false);
 
+        let mapped_arguments_binding_indices = self
+            .emitted_mapped_arguments_object_opcode
+            .then(|| MappedArguments::binding_indices(&self.params))
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+
+        let max_local_binding_register_index =
+            self.local_binding_registers.values().max().unwrap_or(&0);
+        let local_bindings_initialized =
+            vec![false; (max_local_binding_register_index + 1) as usize].into_boxed_slice();
+
         let register_count = self.register_allocator.finish();
 
         // NOTE: Offset the handlers stack count so we don't pop the registers
@@ -1745,12 +1772,6 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             handler.stack_count += register_count;
         }
 
-        let mapped_arguments_binding_indices = if self.emitted_mapped_arguments_object_opcode {
-            MappedArguments::binding_indices(&self.params)
-        } else {
-            ThinVec::new()
-        };
-
         CodeBlock {
             name: self.function_name,
             length: self.length,
@@ -1761,6 +1782,7 @@ impl<'ctx> ByteCompiler<'ctx> {
             bytecode: self.bytecode.into_boxed_slice(),
             constants: self.constants,
             bindings: self.bindings.into_boxed_slice(),
+            local_bindings_initialized,
             handlers: self.handlers,
             flags: Cell::new(self.code_block_flags),
             ic: self.ic.into_boxed_slice(),
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/module.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/module.rs
index 06f9521cce..f29d473d71 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/module.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/module.rs
@@ -45,8 +45,6 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     ExportDeclaration::DefaultClassDeclaration(cl) => self.class(cl.into(), false),
                     ExportDeclaration::DefaultAssignmentExpression(expr) => {
                         let name = Sym::DEFAULT_EXPORT.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        self.lexical_environment
-                            .create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false);
                         self.compile_expr(expr, true);
 
                         if expr.is_anonymous_function_definition() {
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/block.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/block.rs
index 655f3ce642..f4fa8bdb63 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/block.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/block.rs
@@ -4,16 +4,22 @@ use boa_ast::statement::Block;
 impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     /// Compile a [`Block`] `boa_ast` node
     pub(crate) fn compile_block(&mut self, block: &Block, use_expr: bool) {
-        let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-        let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-        let env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
+        let outer_scope = if let Some(scope) = block.scope() {
+            let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
+            Some(outer_scope)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
-        self.block_declaration_instantiation(block, &env);
+        self.block_declaration_instantiation(block);
         self.compile_statement_list(block.statement_list(), use_expr, true);
 
-        self.pop_compile_environment();
-        self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
-        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
+            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/loop.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/loop.rs
index 71c6f453e3..e0589efd7d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/loop.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/loop.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 use boa_ast::{
     declaration::Binding,
     operations::bound_names,
+    scope::BindingLocatorError,
     statement::{
         iteration::{ForLoopInitializer, IterableLoopInitializer},
         DoWhileLoop, ForInLoop, ForLoop, ForOfLoop, WhileLoop,
@@ -10,7 +11,6 @@ use boa_interner::Sym;
 
 use crate::{
     bytecompiler::{Access, ByteCompiler, Operand, ToJsString},
-    environments::BindingLocatorError,
     vm::{BindingOpcode, Opcode},
 };
 
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         use_expr: bool,
     ) {
         let mut let_binding_indices = None;
-        let mut old_lex_env = None;
+        let mut outer_scope = None;
 
         if let Some(init) = for_loop.init() {
             match init {
@@ -31,45 +31,42 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     self.compile_var_decl(decl);
                 }
                 ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(decl) => {
-                    old_lex_env = Some(self.lexical_environment.clone());
-                    let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
+                    outer_scope = Some(self.lexical_scope.clone());
+                    let scope_index = self.push_scope(decl.scope());
+                    self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
 
-                    let names = bound_names(decl);
-                    if decl.is_const() {
-                        for name in &names {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            self.lexical_environment
-                                .create_immutable_binding(name, true);
-                        }
+                    let names = bound_names(decl.declaration());
+                    if decl.declaration().is_const() {
                     } else {
                         let mut indices = Vec::new();
                         for name in &names {
                             let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                            let binding =
-                                self.lexical_environment.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
+                            let binding = self
+                                .lexical_scope
+                                .get_binding_reference(&name)
+                                .expect("binding must exist");
                             let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
                             indices.push(index);
                         }
-                        let_binding_indices = Some((indices, env_index));
+                        let_binding_indices = Some((indices, scope_index));
                     }
-                    self.compile_lexical_decl(decl);
+                    self.compile_lexical_decl(decl.declaration());
                 }
             }
         }
 
         self.push_empty_loop_jump_control(use_expr);
 
-        if let Some((let_binding_indices, env_index)) = &let_binding_indices {
+        if let Some((let_binding_indices, scope_index)) = &let_binding_indices {
             for index in let_binding_indices {
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, *index);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, index);
             }
 
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, *env_index);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, *scope_index);
 
             for index in let_binding_indices.iter().rev() {
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, *index);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, index);
             }
         }
 
@@ -83,16 +80,16 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             .expect("jump_control must exist as it was just pushed")
             .set_start_address(start_address);
 
-        if let Some((let_binding_indices, env_index)) = &let_binding_indices {
+        if let Some((let_binding_indices, scope_index)) = &let_binding_indices {
             for index in let_binding_indices {
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::GetName, *index);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::GetName, index);
             }
 
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, *env_index);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, *scope_index);
 
             for index in let_binding_indices.iter().rev() {
-                self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, *index);
+                self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::PutLexicalValue, index);
             }
         }
 
@@ -118,9 +115,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         self.patch_jump(exit);
         self.pop_loop_control_info();
 
-        if let Some(old_lex_env) = old_lex_env {
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
     }
@@ -141,27 +138,16 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                 }
             }
         }
-        let initializer_bound_names = match for_in_loop.initializer() {
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
-            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => bound_names(declaration),
-            _ => Vec::new(),
-        };
-        if initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
+        if let Some(scope) = for_in_loop.target_scope() {
+            let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
             self.compile_expr(for_in_loop.target(), true);
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
+            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         } else {
-            let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-
-            for name in &initializer_bound_names {
-                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                self.lexical_environment.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-            }
             self.compile_expr(for_in_loop.target(), true);
-
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
-            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
 
         let early_exit = self.jump_if_null_or_undefined();
@@ -177,12 +163,12 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::IteratorValue);
 
-        let mut old_lex_env = None;
+        let mut outer_scope = None;
 
-        if !initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
-            old_lex_env = Some(self.lexical_environment.clone());
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
+        if let Some(scope) = for_in_loop.scope() {
+            outer_scope = Some(self.lexical_scope.clone());
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
         }
 
         match for_in_loop.initializer() {
@@ -206,35 +192,13 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitVar);
                 }
             },
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration) => match declaration {
-                Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
-                    let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    self.lexical_environment
-                        .create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false);
-                    self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, ident);
-                }
-                Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
-                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
-                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        self.lexical_environment
-                            .create_mutable_binding(ident, false);
-                    }
-                    self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitLexical);
-                }
-            },
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => match declaration {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
+            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => match declaration {
                 Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
                     let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    self.lexical_environment
-                        .create_immutable_binding(ident.clone(), true);
                     self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, ident);
                 }
                 Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
-                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
-                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        self.lexical_environment
-                            .create_immutable_binding(ident, true);
-                    }
                     self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitLexical);
                 }
             },
@@ -245,9 +209,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         self.compile_stmt(for_in_loop.body(), use_expr, true);
 
-        if let Some(old_lex_env) = old_lex_env {
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
 
@@ -270,27 +234,16 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         label: Option<Sym>,
         use_expr: bool,
     ) {
-        let initializer_bound_names = match for_of_loop.initializer() {
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
-            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => bound_names(declaration),
-            _ => Vec::new(),
-        };
-        if initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
+        if let Some(scope) = for_of_loop.iterable_scope() {
+            let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
             self.compile_expr(for_of_loop.iterable(), true);
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
+            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         } else {
-            let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-
-            for name in &initializer_bound_names {
-                let name = name.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                self.lexical_environment.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-            }
             self.compile_expr(for_of_loop.iterable(), true);
-
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
-            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
 
         if for_of_loop.r#await() {
@@ -318,23 +271,23 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         let exit = self.jump_if_true();
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::IteratorValue);
 
-        let mut old_lex_env = None;
+        let mut outer_scope = None;
 
-        if !initializer_bound_names.is_empty() {
-            old_lex_env = Some(self.lexical_environment.clone());
-            let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-        };
+        if let Some(scope) = for_of_loop.scope() {
+            outer_scope = Some(self.lexical_scope.clone());
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
+        }
 
         let handler_index = self.push_handler();
 
         match for_of_loop.initializer() {
             IterableLoopInitializer::Identifier(ref ident) => {
                 let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                match self.lexical_environment.set_mutable_binding(ident.clone()) {
+                match self.lexical_scope.set_mutable_binding(ident.clone()) {
                     Ok(binding) => {
                         let index = self.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
-                        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                        self.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
                     }
                     Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable) => {
                         let index = self.get_or_insert_string(ident);
@@ -365,35 +318,13 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
                     }
                 }
             }
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration) => match declaration {
-                Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
-                    let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    self.lexical_environment
-                        .create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false);
-                    self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, ident);
-                }
-                Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
-                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
-                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        self.lexical_environment
-                            .create_mutable_binding(ident, false);
-                    }
-                    self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitLexical);
-                }
-            },
-            IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => match declaration {
+            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration)
+            | IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration) => match declaration {
                 Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
                     let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    self.lexical_environment
-                        .create_immutable_binding(ident.clone(), true);
                     self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, ident);
                 }
                 Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
-                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
-                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        self.lexical_environment
-                            .create_immutable_binding(ident, true);
-                    }
                     self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitLexical);
                 }
             },
@@ -423,9 +354,9 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
             self.patch_jump(exit);
         }
 
-        if let Some(old_lex_env) = old_lex_env {
-            self.pop_compile_environment();
-            self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
             self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
         }
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/switch.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/switch.rs
index 366f6e276f..d1bb4b8d38 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/switch.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/switch.rs
@@ -6,12 +6,16 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     pub(crate) fn compile_switch(&mut self, switch: &Switch, use_expr: bool) {
         self.compile_expr(switch.val(), true);
 
-        let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-        let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-        let env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
+        let outer_scope = if let Some(scope) = switch.scope() {
+            let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+            let scope_index = self.push_scope(scope);
+            self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
+            Some(outer_scope)
+        } else {
+            None
+        };
 
-        self.block_declaration_instantiation(switch, &env);
+        self.block_declaration_instantiation(switch);
 
         let start_address = self.next_opcode_location();
         self.push_switch_control_info(None, start_address, use_expr);
@@ -52,8 +56,10 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         self.pop_switch_control_info();
 
-        self.pop_compile_environment();
-        self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
-        self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
+        if let Some(outer_scope) = outer_scope {
+            self.pop_scope();
+            self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
+            self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
+        }
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/try.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/try.rs
index c2030207fb..ad0b626c5a 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/try.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/try.rs
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ use crate::{
 };
 use boa_ast::{
     declaration::Binding,
-    operations::bound_names,
     statement::{Block, Catch, Finally, Try},
     Statement, StatementListItem,
 };
@@ -111,23 +110,17 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     pub(crate) fn compile_catch_stmt(&mut self, catch: &Catch, _has_finally: bool, use_expr: bool) {
         // stack: exception
 
-        let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-        let env_index = self.push_compile_environment(false);
-        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment, env_index);
-        let env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
+        let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+        let scope_index = self.push_scope(catch.scope());
+        self.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::PushScope, scope_index);
 
         if let Some(binding) = catch.parameter() {
             match binding {
                 Binding::Identifier(ident) => {
                     let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                    env.create_mutable_binding(ident.clone(), false);
                     self.emit_binding(BindingOpcode::InitLexical, ident);
                 }
                 Binding::Pattern(pattern) => {
-                    for ident in bound_names(pattern) {
-                        let ident = ident.to_js_string(self.interner());
-                        env.create_mutable_binding(ident, false);
-                    }
                     self.compile_declaration_pattern(pattern, BindingOpcode::InitLexical);
                 }
             }
@@ -137,8 +130,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
 
         self.compile_catch_finally_block(catch.block(), use_expr);
 
-        self.pop_compile_environment();
-        self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        self.pop_scope();
+        self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
     }
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/with.rs b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/with.rs
index db05b3d4dd..dcbf80d026 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/with.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/bytecompiler/statement/with.rs
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
     pub(crate) fn compile_with(&mut self, with: &With, use_expr: bool) {
         self.compile_expr(with.expression(), true);
 
-        let old_lex_env = self.lexical_environment.clone();
-        let _ = self.push_compile_environment(false);
+        let outer_scope = self.lexical_scope.clone();
+        let _ = self.push_scope(with.scope());
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushObjectEnvironment);
 
         let in_with = self.in_with;
@@ -15,8 +15,8 @@ impl ByteCompiler<'_> {
         self.compile_stmt(with.statement(), use_expr, true);
         self.in_with = in_with;
 
-        self.pop_compile_environment();
-        self.lexical_environment = old_lex_env;
+        self.pop_scope();
+        self.lexical_scope = outer_scope;
         self.emit_opcode(Opcode::PopEnvironment);
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/compile.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/compile.rs
deleted file mode 100644
index 1169f91916..0000000000
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/compile.rs
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,219 +0,0 @@
-use std::{cell::RefCell, rc::Rc};
-
-use crate::{environments::runtime::BindingLocator, JsString};
-use boa_gc::{empty_trace, Finalize, Trace};
-
-use rustc_hash::FxHashMap;
-
-use super::runtime::BindingLocatorError;
-
-/// A compile time binding represents a binding at bytecode compile time in a [`CompileTimeEnvironment`].
-///
-/// It contains the binding index and a flag to indicate if this is a mutable binding or not.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct CompileTimeBinding {
-    index: u32,
-    mutable: bool,
-    lex: bool,
-    strict: bool,
-}
-
-/// A compile time environment maps bound identifiers to their binding positions.
-///
-/// A compile time environment also indicates, if it is a function environment.
-#[derive(Debug, Finalize)]
-pub(crate) struct CompileTimeEnvironment {
-    outer: Option<Rc<Self>>,
-    environment_index: u32,
-    bindings: RefCell<FxHashMap<JsString, CompileTimeBinding>>,
-    function_scope: bool,
-}
-
-// Safety: Nothing in this struct needs tracing, so this is safe.
-unsafe impl Trace for CompileTimeEnvironment {
-    empty_trace!();
-}
-
-impl CompileTimeEnvironment {
-    /// Creates a new global compile time environment.
-    pub(crate) fn new_global() -> Self {
-        Self {
-            outer: None,
-            environment_index: 0,
-            bindings: RefCell::default(),
-            function_scope: true,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a new compile time environment.
-    pub(crate) fn new(parent: Rc<Self>, function_scope: bool) -> Self {
-        let index = parent.environment_index + 1;
-        Self {
-            outer: Some(parent),
-            environment_index: index,
-            bindings: RefCell::default(),
-            function_scope,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Check if environment has a lexical binding with the given name.
-    pub(crate) fn has_lex_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> bool {
-        self.bindings
-            .borrow()
-            .get(name)
-            .map_or(false, |binding| binding.lex)
-    }
-
-    /// Check if the environment has a binding with the given name.
-    pub(crate) fn has_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> bool {
-        self.bindings.borrow().contains_key(name)
-    }
-
-    /// Get the binding locator for a binding with the given name.
-    /// Fall back to the global environment if the binding is not found.
-    pub(crate) fn get_identifier_reference(&self, name: JsString) -> IdentifierReference {
-        if let Some(binding) = self.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
-            IdentifierReference::new(
-                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.environment_index, binding.index),
-                binding.lex,
-            )
-        } else if let Some(outer) = &self.outer {
-            outer.get_identifier_reference(name)
-        } else {
-            IdentifierReference::new(BindingLocator::global(name), false)
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the number of bindings in this environment.
-    pub(crate) fn num_bindings(&self) -> u32 {
-        self.bindings.borrow().len() as u32
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the index of this environment.
-    pub(crate) fn environment_index(&self) -> u32 {
-        self.environment_index
-    }
-
-    /// Check if the environment is a function environment.
-    pub(crate) const fn is_function(&self) -> bool {
-        self.function_scope
-    }
-
-    /// Check if the environment is a global environment.
-    pub(crate) const fn is_global(&self) -> bool {
-        self.outer.is_none()
-    }
-
-    /// Get the locator for a binding name.
-    pub(crate) fn get_binding(&self, name: &JsString) -> Option<BindingLocator> {
-        self.bindings.borrow().get(name).map(|binding| {
-            BindingLocator::declarative(name.clone(), self.environment_index, binding.index)
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Create a mutable binding.
-    pub(crate) fn create_mutable_binding(
-        &self,
-        name: JsString,
-        function_scope: bool,
-    ) -> BindingLocator {
-        let binding_index = self.bindings.borrow().len() as u32;
-        self.bindings.borrow_mut().insert(
-            name.clone(),
-            CompileTimeBinding {
-                index: binding_index,
-                mutable: true,
-                lex: !function_scope,
-                strict: false,
-            },
-        );
-        BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.environment_index, binding_index)
-    }
-
-    /// Crate an immutable binding.
-    pub(crate) fn create_immutable_binding(&self, name: JsString, strict: bool) -> BindingLocator {
-        let binding_index = self.bindings.borrow().len() as u32;
-        self.bindings.borrow_mut().insert(
-            name.clone(),
-            CompileTimeBinding {
-                index: binding_index,
-                mutable: false,
-                lex: true,
-                strict,
-            },
-        );
-        BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.environment_index, binding_index)
-    }
-
-    /// Return the binding locator for a mutable binding.
-    pub(crate) fn set_mutable_binding(
-        &self,
-        name: JsString,
-    ) -> Result<BindingLocator, BindingLocatorError> {
-        Ok(match self.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
-            Some(binding) if binding.mutable => {
-                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.environment_index, binding.index)
-            }
-            Some(binding) if binding.strict => return Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable),
-            Some(_) => return Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent),
-            None => self.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
-                || Ok(BindingLocator::global(name.clone())),
-                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding(name.clone()),
-            )?,
-        })
-    }
-
-    #[cfg(feature = "annex-b")]
-    /// Return the binding locator for a set operation on an existing var binding.
-    pub(crate) fn set_mutable_binding_var(
-        &self,
-        name: JsString,
-    ) -> Result<BindingLocator, BindingLocatorError> {
-        if !self.is_function() {
-            return self.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
-                || Ok(BindingLocator::global(name.clone())),
-                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone()),
-            );
-        }
-
-        Ok(match self.bindings.borrow().get(&name) {
-            Some(binding) if binding.mutable => {
-                BindingLocator::declarative(name, self.environment_index, binding.index)
-            }
-            Some(binding) if binding.strict => return Err(BindingLocatorError::MutateImmutable),
-            Some(_) => return Err(BindingLocatorError::Silent),
-            None => self.outer.as_ref().map_or_else(
-                || Ok(BindingLocator::global(name.clone())),
-                |outer| outer.set_mutable_binding_var(name.clone()),
-            )?,
-        })
-    }
-
-    /// Gets the outer environment of this environment.
-    pub(crate) fn outer(&self) -> Option<Rc<Self>> {
-        self.outer.clone()
-    }
-}
-
-/// A reference to an identifier in a compile time environment.
-pub(crate) struct IdentifierReference {
-    locator: BindingLocator,
-    lexical: bool,
-}
-
-impl IdentifierReference {
-    /// Create a new identifier reference.
-    pub(crate) fn new(locator: BindingLocator, lexical: bool) -> Self {
-        Self { locator, lexical }
-    }
-
-    /// Get the binding locator for this identifier reference.
-    pub(crate) fn locator(&self) -> BindingLocator {
-        self.locator.clone()
-    }
-
-    /// Check if this identifier reference is lexical.
-    pub(crate) fn is_lexical(&self) -> bool {
-        self.lexical
-    }
-}
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/mod.rs
index fd8819a08e..d752854df4 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/environments/mod.rs
@@ -24,15 +24,11 @@
 //!
 //! [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-environment-records
 
-mod compile;
 mod runtime;
 
-pub(crate) use {
-    compile::CompileTimeEnvironment,
-    runtime::{
-        BindingLocator, BindingLocatorEnvironment, BindingLocatorError, DeclarativeEnvironment,
-        Environment, EnvironmentStack, FunctionSlots, PrivateEnvironment, ThisBindingStatus,
-    },
+pub(crate) use runtime::{
+    DeclarativeEnvironment, Environment, EnvironmentStack, FunctionSlots, PrivateEnvironment,
+    ThisBindingStatus,
 };
 
 #[cfg(test)]
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/function.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/function.rs
index b1a7275c97..9630841af6 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/function.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/function.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use boa_gc::{custom_trace, Finalize, GcRefCell, Trace};
 
 use crate::{builtins::function::OrdinaryFunction, JsNativeError, JsObject, JsResult, JsValue};
@@ -8,14 +9,25 @@ use super::PoisonableEnvironment;
 pub(crate) struct FunctionEnvironment {
     inner: PoisonableEnvironment,
     slots: Box<FunctionSlots>,
+
+    // Safety: Nothing in `Scope` needs tracing.
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
+    scope: Scope,
 }
 
 impl FunctionEnvironment {
     /// Creates a new `FunctionEnvironment`.
-    pub(crate) fn new(bindings: u32, poisoned: bool, with: bool, slots: FunctionSlots) -> Self {
+    pub(crate) fn new(
+        bindings: u32,
+        poisoned: bool,
+        with: bool,
+        slots: FunctionSlots,
+        scope: Scope,
+    ) -> Self {
         Self {
             inner: PoisonableEnvironment::new(bindings, poisoned, with),
             slots: Box::new(slots),
+            scope,
         }
     }
 
@@ -24,6 +36,11 @@ impl FunctionEnvironment {
         &self.slots
     }
 
+    /// Gets the compile time environment of this function environment.
+    pub(crate) const fn compile(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.scope
+    }
+
     /// Gets the `poisonable_environment` of this function environment.
     pub(crate) const fn poisonable_environment(&self) -> &PoisonableEnvironment {
         &self.inner
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/mod.rs
index 32cfc53469..5980587af2 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/mod.rs
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ pub(crate) use global::GlobalEnvironment;
 pub(crate) use lexical::LexicalEnvironment;
 pub(crate) use module::ModuleEnvironment;
 
-use crate::{environments::CompileTimeEnvironment, JsResult, JsValue};
+use crate::{JsResult, JsValue};
 use boa_gc::{Finalize, GcRefCell, Trace};
-use std::{cell::Cell, rc::Rc};
+use std::cell::Cell;
 
 /// A declarative environment holds binding values at runtime.
 ///
@@ -35,10 +35,6 @@ use std::{cell::Cell, rc::Rc};
 #[derive(Debug, Trace, Finalize)]
 pub(crate) struct DeclarativeEnvironment {
     kind: DeclarativeEnvironmentKind,
-
-    // Safety: Nothing in CompileTimeEnvironment needs tracing.
-    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
-    compile: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
 }
 
 impl DeclarativeEnvironment {
@@ -46,21 +42,12 @@ impl DeclarativeEnvironment {
     pub(crate) fn global() -> Self {
         Self {
             kind: DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Global(GlobalEnvironment::new()),
-            compile: Rc::new(CompileTimeEnvironment::new_global()),
         }
     }
 
     /// Creates a new `DeclarativeEnvironment` from its kind and compile environment.
-    pub(crate) fn new(
-        kind: DeclarativeEnvironmentKind,
-        compile: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self { kind, compile }
-    }
-
-    /// Gets the compile time environment of this environment.
-    pub(crate) fn compile_env(&self) -> Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment> {
-        self.compile.clone()
+    pub(crate) fn new(kind: DeclarativeEnvironmentKind) -> Self {
+        Self { kind }
     }
 
     /// Returns a reference to the the kind of the environment.
@@ -68,6 +55,11 @@ impl DeclarativeEnvironment {
         &self.kind
     }
 
+    /// Returns whether this environment is a function environment.
+    pub(crate) fn is_function(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self.kind(), DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Function(_))
+    }
+
     /// Gets the binding value from the environment by index.
     ///
     /// # Panics
@@ -130,7 +122,7 @@ impl DeclarativeEnvironment {
     /// Extends the environment with the bindings from the compile time environment.
     pub(crate) fn extend_from_compile(&self) {
         if let Some(env) = self.kind().as_function() {
-            let compile_bindings_number = self.compile_env().num_bindings() as usize;
+            let compile_bindings_number = env.compile().num_bindings() as usize;
             let mut bindings = env.poisonable_environment().bindings().borrow_mut();
             if compile_bindings_number > bindings.len() {
                 bindings.resize(compile_bindings_number, None);
@@ -280,8 +272,7 @@ pub(crate) struct PoisonableEnvironment {
     bindings: GcRefCell<Vec<Option<JsValue>>>,
     #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
     poisoned: Cell<bool>,
-    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
-    with: Cell<bool>,
+    with: bool,
 }
 
 impl PoisonableEnvironment {
@@ -290,7 +281,7 @@ impl PoisonableEnvironment {
         Self {
             bindings: GcRefCell::new(vec![None; bindings_count as usize]),
             poisoned: Cell::new(poisoned),
-            with: Cell::new(with),
+            with,
         }
     }
 
@@ -326,7 +317,7 @@ impl PoisonableEnvironment {
 
     /// Returns `true` if this environment is inside a `with` environment.
     fn with(&self) -> bool {
-        self.with.get()
+        self.with
     }
 
     /// Poisons this environment for future binding searches.
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/module.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/module.rs
index 6ffd88cb45..2acffe9d8d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/module.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/declarative/module.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 use std::cell::RefCell;
 
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use boa_gc::{Finalize, GcRefCell, Trace};
 
 use crate::{module::Module, JsString, JsValue};
@@ -36,16 +37,26 @@ enum BindingType {
 #[derive(Debug, Trace, Finalize)]
 pub(crate) struct ModuleEnvironment {
     bindings: GcRefCell<Vec<BindingType>>,
+
+    // Safety: Nothing in CompileTimeEnvironment needs tracing.
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
+    compile: Scope,
 }
 
 impl ModuleEnvironment {
     /// Creates a new `LexicalEnvironment`.
-    pub(crate) fn new(bindings: u32) -> Self {
+    pub(crate) fn new(bindings: u32, compile: Scope) -> Self {
         Self {
             bindings: GcRefCell::new(vec![BindingType::Direct(None); bindings as usize]),
+            compile,
         }
     }
 
+    /// Gets the compile time environment of this module environment.
+    pub(crate) const fn compile(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.compile
+    }
+
     /// Get the binding value from the environment by it's index.
     ///
     /// # Panics
@@ -63,7 +74,10 @@ impl ModuleEnvironment {
                 match &*accessor.clone().borrow() {
                     BindingAccessor::Identifier(name) => {
                         let index = env
-                            .compile_env()
+                            .kind()
+                            .as_module()
+                            .expect("must be module environment")
+                            .compile()
                             .get_binding(name)
                             .expect("linking must ensure the binding exists");
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/mod.rs
index 8e13398cfc..ba2a03dda5 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/environments/runtime/mod.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,9 @@
-use std::rc::Rc;
-
 use crate::{
-    environments::CompileTimeEnvironment,
     object::{JsObject, PrivateName},
     Context, JsResult, JsString, JsSymbol, JsValue,
 };
-use boa_gc::{empty_trace, Finalize, Gc, Trace};
+use boa_ast::scope::{BindingLocator, BindingLocatorScope, Scope};
+use boa_gc::{Finalize, Gc, Trace};
 
 mod declarative;
 mod private;
@@ -76,18 +74,18 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
     }
 
     /// Gets the next outer function environment.
-    pub(crate) fn outer_function_environment(&self) -> &Gc<DeclarativeEnvironment> {
+    pub(crate) fn outer_function_environment(&self) -> Option<(Gc<DeclarativeEnvironment>, Scope)> {
         for env in self
             .stack
             .iter()
             .filter_map(Environment::as_declarative)
             .rev()
         {
-            if let DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Function(_) = &env.kind() {
-                return env;
+            if let Some(function_env) = env.kind().as_function() {
+                return Some((env.clone(), function_env.compile().clone()));
             }
         }
-        self.global()
+        None
     }
 
     /// Pop all current environments except the global environment.
@@ -157,9 +155,7 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
     }
 
     /// Push a lexical environment on the environments stack and return it's index.
-    pub(crate) fn push_lexical(&mut self, compile_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>) -> u32 {
-        let num_bindings = compile_environment.num_bindings();
-
+    pub(crate) fn push_lexical(&mut self, bindings_count: u32) -> u32 {
         let (poisoned, with) = {
             // Check if the outer environment is a declarative environment.
             let with = if let Some(env) = self.stack.last() {
@@ -180,26 +176,17 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
         let index = self.stack.len() as u32;
 
         self.stack.push(Environment::Declarative(Gc::new(
-            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(
-                DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Lexical(LexicalEnvironment::new(
-                    num_bindings,
-                    poisoned,
-                    with,
-                )),
-                compile_environment,
-            ),
+            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Lexical(
+                LexicalEnvironment::new(bindings_count, poisoned, with),
+            )),
         )));
 
         index
     }
 
     /// Push a function environment on the environments stack.
-    pub(crate) fn push_function(
-        &mut self,
-        compile_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>,
-        function_slots: FunctionSlots,
-    ) {
-        let num_bindings = compile_environment.num_bindings();
+    pub(crate) fn push_function(&mut self, scope: Scope, function_slots: FunctionSlots) {
+        let num_bindings = scope.num_bindings();
 
         let (poisoned, with) = {
             // Check if the outer environment is a declarative environment.
@@ -219,26 +206,19 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
         };
 
         self.stack.push(Environment::Declarative(Gc::new(
-            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(
-                DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Function(FunctionEnvironment::new(
-                    num_bindings,
-                    poisoned,
-                    with,
-                    function_slots,
-                )),
-                compile_environment,
-            ),
+            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Function(
+                FunctionEnvironment::new(num_bindings, poisoned, with, function_slots, scope),
+            )),
         )));
     }
 
     /// Push a module environment on the environments stack.
-    pub(crate) fn push_module(&mut self, compile_environment: Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>) {
-        let num_bindings = compile_environment.num_bindings();
+    pub(crate) fn push_module(&mut self, scope: Scope) {
+        let num_bindings = scope.num_bindings();
         self.stack.push(Environment::Declarative(Gc::new(
-            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(
-                DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Module(ModuleEnvironment::new(num_bindings)),
-                compile_environment,
-            ),
+            DeclarativeEnvironment::new(DeclarativeEnvironmentKind::Module(
+                ModuleEnvironment::new(num_bindings, scope),
+            )),
         )));
     }
 
@@ -258,16 +238,6 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
         }
     }
 
-    /// Get the compile environment for the current runtime environment.
-    pub(crate) fn current_compile_environment(&self) -> Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment> {
-        self.stack
-            .iter()
-            .filter_map(Environment::as_declarative)
-            .last()
-            .map(|env| env.compile_env())
-            .unwrap_or(self.global().compile_env())
-    }
-
     /// Mark that there may be added bindings from the current environment to the next function
     /// environment.
     pub(crate) fn poison_until_last_function(&mut self) {
@@ -278,7 +248,7 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
             .filter_map(Environment::as_declarative)
         {
             env.poison();
-            if env.compile_env().is_function() {
+            if env.is_function() {
                 return;
             }
         }
@@ -293,14 +263,15 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
     #[track_caller]
     pub(crate) fn put_lexical_value(
         &mut self,
-        environment: BindingLocatorEnvironment,
+        environment: BindingLocatorScope,
         binding_index: u32,
         value: JsValue,
     ) {
         let env = match environment {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject
-            | BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => self.global(),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => self
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject | BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => {
+                self.global()
+            }
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => self
                 .stack
                 .get(index as usize)
                 .and_then(Environment::as_declarative)
@@ -317,14 +288,15 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
     #[track_caller]
     pub(crate) fn put_value_if_uninitialized(
         &mut self,
-        environment: BindingLocatorEnvironment,
+        environment: BindingLocatorScope,
         binding_index: u32,
         value: JsValue,
     ) {
         let env = match environment {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject
-            | BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => self.global(),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => self
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject | BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => {
+                self.global()
+            }
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => self
                 .stack
                 .get(index as usize)
                 .and_then(Environment::as_declarative)
@@ -388,103 +360,6 @@ impl EnvironmentStack {
     }
 }
 
-/// A binding locator contains all information about a binding that is needed to resolve it at runtime.
-///
-/// Binding locators get created at bytecode compile time and are accessible at runtime via the [`crate::vm::CodeBlock`].
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, Hash, PartialEq, Finalize)]
-pub(crate) struct BindingLocator {
-    /// Name of the binding.
-    name: JsString,
-
-    /// Environment of the binding.
-    /// - 0: Global object
-    /// - 1: Global declarative environment
-    /// - n: Stack environment at index n - 2
-    environment: u32,
-
-    /// Index of the binding in the environment.
-    binding_index: u32,
-}
-
-unsafe impl Trace for BindingLocator {
-    empty_trace!();
-}
-
-impl BindingLocator {
-    /// Creates a new declarative binding locator that has knows indices.
-    pub(crate) const fn declarative(
-        name: JsString,
-        environment_index: u32,
-        binding_index: u32,
-    ) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            name,
-            environment: environment_index + 1,
-            binding_index,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Creates a binding locator that indicates that the binding is on the global object.
-    pub(super) const fn global(name: JsString) -> Self {
-        Self {
-            name,
-            environment: 0,
-            binding_index: 0,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the name of the binding.
-    pub(crate) const fn name(&self) -> &JsString {
-        &self.name
-    }
-
-    /// Returns if the binding is located on the global object.
-    pub(crate) const fn is_global(&self) -> bool {
-        self.environment == 0
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the environment of the binding.
-    pub(crate) fn environment(&self) -> BindingLocatorEnvironment {
-        match self.environment {
-            0 => BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject,
-            1 => BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative,
-            n => BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(n - 2),
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Sets the environment of the binding.
-    fn set_environment(&mut self, environment: BindingLocatorEnvironment) {
-        self.environment = match environment {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => 0,
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => 1,
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => index + 2,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /// Returns the binding index of the binding.
-    pub(crate) const fn binding_index(&self) -> u32 {
-        self.binding_index
-    }
-}
-
-/// Action that is returned when a fallible binding operation.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub(crate) enum BindingLocatorError {
-    /// Trying to mutate immutable binding,
-    MutateImmutable,
-
-    /// Indicates that any action is silently ignored.
-    Silent,
-}
-
-/// The environment in which a binding is located.
-#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
-pub(crate) enum BindingLocatorEnvironment {
-    GlobalObject,
-    GlobalDeclarative,
-    Stack(u32),
-}
-
 impl Context {
     /// Gets the corresponding runtime binding of the provided `BindingLocator`, modifying
     /// its indexes in place.
@@ -502,10 +377,9 @@ impl Context {
             }
         }
 
-        let (global, min_index) = match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject
-            | BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => (true, 0),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => (false, index),
+        let (global, min_index) = match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject | BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => (true, 0),
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => (false, index),
         };
         let max_index = self.vm.environments.stack.len() as u32;
 
@@ -513,11 +387,10 @@ impl Context {
             match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(env) => {
                     if env.poisoned() {
-                        let compile = env.compile_env();
-                        if compile.is_function() {
-                            if let Some(b) = compile.get_binding(locator.name()) {
-                                locator.set_environment(b.environment());
-                                locator.binding_index = b.binding_index();
+                        if let Some(env) = env.kind().as_function() {
+                            if let Some(b) = env.compile().get_binding(locator.name()) {
+                                locator.set_scope(b.scope());
+                                locator.set_binding_index(b.binding_index());
                                 return Ok(());
                             }
                         }
@@ -535,21 +408,17 @@ impl Context {
                                 continue;
                             }
                         }
-                        locator.set_environment(BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index));
+                        locator.set_scope(BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index));
                         return Ok(());
                     }
                 }
             }
         }
 
-        if global {
-            let env = self.vm.environments.global();
-            if env.poisoned() {
-                let compile = env.compile_env();
-                if let Some(b) = compile.get_binding(locator.name()) {
-                    locator.set_environment(b.environment());
-                    locator.binding_index = b.binding_index();
-                }
+        if global && self.realm().environment().poisoned() {
+            if let Some(b) = self.realm().scope().get_binding(locator.name()) {
+                locator.set_scope(b.scope());
+                locator.set_binding_index(b.binding_index());
             }
         }
 
@@ -567,10 +436,9 @@ impl Context {
             }
         }
 
-        let min_index = match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject
-            | BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => 0,
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => index,
+        let min_index = match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject | BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => 0,
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => index,
         };
         let max_index = self.vm.environments.stack.len() as u32;
 
@@ -578,9 +446,10 @@ impl Context {
             match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(env) => {
                     if env.poisoned() {
-                        let compile = env.compile_env();
-                        if compile.is_function() && compile.get_binding(locator.name()).is_some() {
-                            break;
+                        if let Some(env) = env.kind().as_function() {
+                            if env.compile().get_binding(locator.name()).is_some() {
+                                break;
+                            }
                         }
                     } else if !env.with() {
                         break;
@@ -611,17 +480,17 @@ impl Context {
     ///
     /// Panics if the environment or binding index are out of range.
     pub(crate) fn is_initialized_binding(&mut self, locator: &BindingLocator) -> JsResult<bool> {
-        match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => {
+        match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => {
                 let key = locator.name().clone();
                 let obj = self.global_object();
                 obj.has_property(key, self)
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => {
                 let env = self.vm.environments.global();
                 Ok(env.get(locator.binding_index()).is_some())
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(env) => Ok(env.get(locator.binding_index()).is_some()),
                 Environment::Object(obj) => {
                     let key = locator.name().clone();
@@ -638,17 +507,17 @@ impl Context {
     ///
     /// Panics if the environment or binding index are out of range.
     pub(crate) fn get_binding(&mut self, locator: &BindingLocator) -> JsResult<Option<JsValue>> {
-        match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => {
+        match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => {
                 let key = locator.name().clone();
                 let obj = self.global_object();
                 obj.try_get(key, self)
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => {
                 let env = self.vm.environments.global();
                 Ok(env.get(locator.binding_index()))
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(env) => Ok(env.get(locator.binding_index())),
                 Environment::Object(obj) => {
                     let key = locator.name().clone();
@@ -671,17 +540,17 @@ impl Context {
         value: JsValue,
         strict: bool,
     ) -> JsResult<()> {
-        match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => {
+        match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => {
                 let key = locator.name().clone();
                 let obj = self.global_object();
                 obj.set(key, value, strict, self)?;
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => {
                 let env = self.vm.environments.global();
                 env.set(locator.binding_index(), value);
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(decl) => {
                     decl.set(locator.binding_index(), value);
                 }
@@ -703,14 +572,14 @@ impl Context {
     ///
     /// Panics if the environment or binding index are out of range.
     pub(crate) fn delete_binding(&mut self, locator: &BindingLocator) -> JsResult<bool> {
-        match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => {
+        match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => {
                 let key = locator.name().clone();
                 let obj = self.global_object();
                 obj.__delete__(&key.into(), &mut self.into())
             }
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => Ok(false),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => Ok(false),
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => match self.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(_) => Ok(false),
                 Environment::Object(obj) => {
                     let key = locator.name().clone();
diff --git a/core/engine/src/module/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/module/mod.rs
index c0cd78f610..c8692895b6 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/module/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/module/mod.rs
@@ -163,15 +163,17 @@ impl Module {
     ) -> JsResult<Self> {
         let _timer = Profiler::global().start_event("Module parsing", "Main");
         let path = src.path().map(Path::to_path_buf);
+        let realm = realm.unwrap_or_else(|| context.realm().clone());
+
         let mut parser = Parser::new(src);
         parser.set_identifier(context.next_parser_identifier());
-        let module = parser.parse_module(context.interner_mut())?;
+        let module = parser.parse_module(realm.scope(), context.interner_mut())?;
 
         let src = SourceTextModule::new(module, context.interner());
 
         Ok(Self {
             inner: Gc::new(ModuleRepr {
-                realm: realm.unwrap_or_else(|| context.realm().clone()),
+                realm,
                 namespace: GcRefCell::default(),
                 kind: ModuleKind::SourceText(src),
                 host_defined: HostDefined::default(),
diff --git a/core/engine/src/module/namespace.rs b/core/engine/src/module/namespace.rs
index 1874d481bb..196e0dd084 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/module/namespace.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/module/namespace.rs
@@ -309,7 +309,10 @@ fn module_namespace_exotic_try_get(
         };
 
         let locator = env
-            .compile_env()
+            .kind()
+            .as_module()
+            .expect("must be module environment")
+            .compile()
             .get_binding(&name)
             .expect("checked before that the name was reachable");
 
@@ -386,7 +389,10 @@ fn module_namespace_exotic_get(
         };
 
         let locator = env
-            .compile_env()
+            .kind()
+            .as_module()
+            .expect("must be module environment")
+            .compile()
             .get_binding(&name)
             .expect("checked before that the name was reachable");
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/module/source.rs b/core/engine/src/module/source.rs
index d35a4ca521..e7f10c7f10 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/module/source.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/module/source.rs
@@ -2,13 +2,14 @@ use std::{cell::Cell, collections::HashSet, hash::BuildHasherDefault, rc::Rc};
 
 use boa_ast::{
     declaration::{
-        ExportEntry, ImportEntry, ImportName, IndirectExportEntry, LexicalDeclaration,
-        LocalExportEntry, ReExportImportName,
+        ExportEntry, ImportEntry, ImportName, IndirectExportEntry, LocalExportEntry,
+        ReExportImportName,
     },
     operations::{
         bound_names, contains, lexically_scoped_declarations, var_scoped_declarations,
         ContainsSymbol, LexicallyScopedDeclaration,
     },
+    scope::BindingLocator,
 };
 use boa_gc::{Finalize, Gc, GcRefCell, Trace};
 use boa_interner::Interner;
@@ -19,9 +20,7 @@ use rustc_hash::{FxHashMap, FxHashSet, FxHasher};
 use crate::{
     builtins::{promise::PromiseCapability, Promise},
     bytecompiler::{ByteCompiler, FunctionSpec, ToJsString},
-    environments::{
-        BindingLocator, CompileTimeEnvironment, DeclarativeEnvironment, EnvironmentStack,
-    },
+    environments::{DeclarativeEnvironment, EnvironmentStack},
     js_string,
     module::ModuleKind,
     object::{FunctionObjectBuilder, JsPromise},
@@ -1423,15 +1422,14 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
         // 5. Let env be NewModuleEnvironment(realm.[[GlobalEnv]]).
         // 6. Set module.[[Environment]] to env.
         let global_env = realm.environment().clone();
-        let global_compile_env = global_env.compile_env();
-        let env = Rc::new(CompileTimeEnvironment::new(global_compile_env, true));
+        let env = self.code.source.scope().clone();
 
         let mut compiler = ByteCompiler::new(
             js_string!("<main>"),
             true,
             false,
-            env.clone(),
-            env.clone(),
+            self.code.source.scope().clone(),
+            self.code.source.scope().clone(),
             true,
             false,
             context.interner_mut(),
@@ -1471,7 +1469,7 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                     // 2. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(in.[[LocalName]], true).
                     // 3. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(in.[[LocalName]], namespace).
                     let local_name = entry.local_name().to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                    let locator = env.create_immutable_binding(local_name, true);
+                    let locator = env.get_binding(&local_name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                     if let BindingName::Name(_) = resolution.binding_name {
                         // 1. Perform env.CreateImportBinding(in.[[LocalName]], resolution.[[Module]],
@@ -1493,10 +1491,8 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                     // b. If in.[[ImportName]] is namespace-object, then
                     //    ii. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(in.[[LocalName]], true).
                     //    iii. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(in.[[LocalName]], namespace).
-                    let locator = env.create_immutable_binding(
-                        entry.local_name().to_js_string(compiler.interner()),
-                        true,
-                    );
+                    let name = entry.local_name().to_js_string(compiler.interner());
+                    let locator = env.get_binding(&name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                     //    i. Let namespace be GetModuleNamespace(importedModule).
                     //       deferred to initialization below
@@ -1522,10 +1518,12 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                     if !declared_var_names.contains(&name) {
                         // 1. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(dn, false).
                         // 2. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(dn, undefined).
-                        let binding = env.create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false);
+                        let binding = env
+                            .get_binding_reference(&name)
+                            .expect("binding must exist");
                         let index = compiler.get_or_insert_binding(binding);
                         compiler.emit_opcode(Opcode::PushUndefined);
-                        compiler.emit_with_varying_operand(Opcode::DefInitVar, index);
+                        compiler.emit_binding_access(Opcode::DefInitVar, &index);
 
                         // 3. Append dn to declaredVarNames.
                         declared_var_names.push(name);
@@ -1549,68 +1547,38 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                 // 2. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(dn, fo).
                 //
                 // deferred to below.
-                let (mut spec, locator): (FunctionSpec<'_>, _) = match declaration {
+                let (spec, locator): (FunctionSpec<'_>, _) = match declaration {
                     LexicallyScopedDeclaration::FunctionDeclaration(f) => {
                         let name = bound_names(f)[0].to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                        let locator = env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
+                        let locator = env.get_binding(&name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                         (f.into(), locator)
                     }
                     LexicallyScopedDeclaration::GeneratorDeclaration(g) => {
                         let name = bound_names(g)[0].to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                        let locator = env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
+                        let locator = env.get_binding(&name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                         (g.into(), locator)
                     }
                     LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AsyncFunctionDeclaration(af) => {
                         let name = bound_names(af)[0].to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                        let locator = env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
+                        let locator = env.get_binding(&name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                         (af.into(), locator)
                     }
                     LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AsyncGeneratorDeclaration(ag) => {
                         let name = bound_names(ag)[0].to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                        let locator = env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
+                        let locator = env.get_binding(&name).expect("binding must exist");
 
                         (ag.into(), locator)
                     }
-                    LexicallyScopedDeclaration::ClassDeclaration(class) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(class) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                            env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    // i. If IsConstantDeclaration of d is true, then
-                    LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
-                        c,
-                    )) => {
-                        // a. For each element dn of the BoundNames of d, do
-                        for name in bound_names(c) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                            // 1. Perform ! env.CreateImmutableBinding(dn, true).
-                            env.create_immutable_binding(name, true);
-                        }
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(LexicalDeclaration::Let(l)) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(l) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                            env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
-                        continue;
-                    }
-                    LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AssignmentExpression(expr) => {
-                        for name in bound_names(expr) {
-                            let name = name.to_js_string(compiler.interner());
-                            env.create_mutable_binding(name, false);
-                        }
+                    LexicallyScopedDeclaration::ClassDeclaration(_)
+                    | LexicallyScopedDeclaration::LexicalDeclaration(_)
+                    | LexicallyScopedDeclaration::AssignmentExpression(_) => {
                         continue;
                     }
                 };
 
-                spec.has_binding_identifier = false;
-
                 functions.push((spec, locator));
             }
 
@@ -1628,7 +1596,7 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
 
         // 8. Let moduleContext be a new ECMAScript code execution context.
         let mut envs = EnvironmentStack::new(global_env);
-        envs.push_module(env);
+        envs.push_module(self.code.source.scope().clone());
 
         // 9. Set the Function of moduleContext to null.
         // 10. Assert: module.[[Realm]] is not undefined.
@@ -1656,7 +1624,7 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                     // i. Let namespace be GetModuleNamespace(importedModule).
                     let namespace = module.namespace(context);
                     context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-                        locator.environment(),
+                        locator.scope(),
                         locator.binding_index(),
                         namespace.into(),
                     );
@@ -1677,7 +1645,7 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
                     BindingName::Namespace => {
                         let namespace = export_locator.module.namespace(context);
                         context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-                            locator.environment(),
+                            locator.scope(),
                             locator.binding_index(),
                             namespace.into(),
                         );
@@ -1693,7 +1661,7 @@ impl SourceTextModule {
             let function = create_function_object_fast(code, context);
 
             context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-                locator.environment(),
+                locator.scope(),
                 locator.binding_index(),
                 function.into(),
             );
diff --git a/core/engine/src/module/synthetic.rs b/core/engine/src/module/synthetic.rs
index 381fe6a32c..5e8309e0b6 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/module/synthetic.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/module/synthetic.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
-use std::rc::Rc;
-
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use boa_gc::{Finalize, Gc, GcRefCell, Trace};
 use rustc_hash::FxHashSet;
 
 use crate::{
     builtins::promise::ResolvingFunctions,
     bytecompiler::ByteCompiler,
-    environments::{CompileTimeEnvironment, DeclarativeEnvironment, EnvironmentStack},
+    environments::{DeclarativeEnvironment, EnvironmentStack},
     js_string,
     object::JsPromise,
     vm::{ActiveRunnable, CallFrame, CodeBlock},
@@ -205,12 +204,18 @@ impl SyntheticModule {
                 export_name.to_std_string_escaped()
             ))
         })?;
-        let locator = env.compile_env().get_binding(export_name).ok_or_else(|| {
-            JsNativeError::reference().with_message(format!(
-                "cannot set name `{}` which was not included in the list of exports",
-                export_name.to_std_string_escaped()
-            ))
-        })?;
+        let locator = env
+            .kind()
+            .as_module()
+            .expect("must be module environment")
+            .compile()
+            .get_binding(export_name)
+            .ok_or_else(|| {
+                JsNativeError::reference().with_message(format!(
+                    "cannot set name `{}` which was not included in the list of exports",
+                    export_name.to_std_string_escaped()
+                ))
+            })?;
         env.set(locator.binding_index(), export_value);
 
         Ok(())
@@ -275,8 +280,8 @@ impl SyntheticModule {
         // 2. Let env be NewModuleEnvironment(realm.[[GlobalEnv]]).
         // 3. Set module.[[Environment]] to env.
         let global_env = module_self.realm().environment().clone();
-        let global_compile_env = global_env.compile_env();
-        let module_compile_env = Rc::new(CompileTimeEnvironment::new(global_compile_env, true));
+        let global_scope = module_self.realm().scope().clone();
+        let module_scope = Scope::new(global_scope, true);
 
         // TODO: A bit of a hack to be able to pass the currently active runnable without an
         // available codeblock to execute.
@@ -284,8 +289,8 @@ impl SyntheticModule {
             js_string!("<main>"),
             true,
             false,
-            module_compile_env.clone(),
-            module_compile_env.clone(),
+            module_scope.clone(),
+            module_scope.clone(),
             false,
             false,
             context.interner_mut(),
@@ -298,19 +303,19 @@ impl SyntheticModule {
             .iter()
             .map(|name| {
                 //     a. Perform ! env.CreateMutableBinding(exportName, false).
-                module_compile_env.create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false)
+                module_scope.create_mutable_binding(name.clone(), false)
             })
             .collect::<Vec<_>>();
 
         let cb = Gc::new(compiler.finish());
 
         let mut envs = EnvironmentStack::new(global_env);
-        envs.push_module(module_compile_env);
+        envs.push_module(module_scope);
 
         for locator in exports {
             //     b. Perform ! env.InitializeBinding(exportName, undefined).
             envs.put_lexical_value(
-                locator.environment(),
+                locator.scope(),
                 locator.binding_index(),
                 JsValue::undefined(),
             );
diff --git a/core/engine/src/realm.rs b/core/engine/src/realm.rs
index 255d713024..b034420c2a 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/realm.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/realm.rs
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 
 use std::any::TypeId;
 
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use rustc_hash::FxHashMap;
 
 use crate::{
@@ -54,7 +55,16 @@ impl std::fmt::Debug for Realm {
 #[derive(Trace, Finalize)]
 struct Inner {
     intrinsics: Intrinsics,
+
+    /// The global declarative environment of this realm.
     environment: Gc<DeclarativeEnvironment>,
+
+    /// The global scope of this realm.
+    /// This is directly related to the global declarative environment.
+    // Safety: Nothing in `Scope` needs tracing.
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
+    scope: Scope,
+
     global_object: JsObject,
     global_this: JsObject,
     template_map: GcRefCell<FxHashMap<u64, JsObject>>,
@@ -79,11 +89,13 @@ impl Realm {
             .create_global_this(&intrinsics)
             .unwrap_or_else(|| global_object.clone());
         let environment = Gc::new(DeclarativeEnvironment::global());
+        let scope = Scope::new_global();
 
         let realm = Self {
             inner: Gc::new(Inner {
                 intrinsics,
                 environment,
+                scope,
                 global_object,
                 global_this,
                 template_map: GcRefCell::default(),
@@ -156,6 +168,12 @@ impl Realm {
         &self.inner.environment
     }
 
+    /// Returns the scope of this realm.
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn scope(&self) -> &Scope {
+        &self.inner.scope
+    }
+
     pub(crate) fn global_object(&self) -> &JsObject {
         &self.inner.global_object
     }
@@ -170,7 +188,7 @@ impl Realm {
 
     /// Resizes the number of bindings on the global environment.
     pub(crate) fn resize_global_env(&self) {
-        let binding_number = self.environment().compile_env().num_bindings();
+        let binding_number = self.scope().num_bindings();
         let env = self
             .environment()
             .kind()
diff --git a/core/engine/src/script.rs b/core/engine/src/script.rs
index 17c76a4550..52c59110e2 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/script.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/script.rs
@@ -90,7 +90,8 @@ impl Script {
         if context.is_strict() {
             parser.set_strict();
         }
-        let mut code = parser.parse_script(context.interner_mut())?;
+        let scope = context.realm().scope().clone();
+        let mut code = parser.parse_script(&scope, context.interner_mut())?;
         if !context.optimizer_options().is_empty() {
             context.optimize_statement_list(code.statements_mut());
         }
@@ -124,7 +125,7 @@ impl Script {
         global_declaration_instantiation_context(
             &mut annex_b_function_names,
             &self.inner.source,
-            &self.inner.realm.environment().compile_env(),
+            self.inner.realm.scope(),
             context,
         )?;
 
@@ -132,8 +133,8 @@ impl Script {
             js_string!("<main>"),
             self.inner.source.strict(),
             false,
-            self.inner.realm.environment().compile_env(),
-            self.inner.realm.environment().compile_env(),
+            self.inner.realm.scope().clone(),
+            self.inner.realm.scope().clone(),
             false,
             false,
             context.interner_mut(),
@@ -146,10 +147,7 @@ impl Script {
         }
 
         // TODO: move to `Script::evaluate` to make this operation infallible.
-        compiler.global_declaration_instantiation(
-            &self.inner.source,
-            &self.inner.realm.environment().compile_env(),
-        );
+        compiler.global_declaration_instantiation(&self.inner.source);
         compiler.compile_statement_list(self.inner.source.statements(), true, false);
 
         let cb = Gc::new(compiler.finish());
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/call_frame/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/call_frame/mod.rs
index 1aee80f95b..3aca4f33a2 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/call_frame/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/call_frame/mod.rs
@@ -7,12 +7,13 @@ use crate::{
         iterable::IteratorRecord,
         promise::{PromiseCapability, ResolvingFunctions},
     },
-    environments::{BindingLocator, EnvironmentStack},
+    environments::EnvironmentStack,
     object::{JsFunction, JsObject},
     realm::Realm,
     vm::CodeBlock,
     JsValue,
 };
+use boa_ast::scope::BindingLocator;
 use boa_gc::{Finalize, Gc, Trace};
 use thin_vec::ThinVec;
 
@@ -55,8 +56,14 @@ pub struct CallFrame {
     pub(crate) iterators: ThinVec<IteratorRecord>,
 
     // The stack of bindings being updated.
+    // SAFETY: Nothing in `BindingLocator` requires tracing, so this is safe.
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
     pub(crate) binding_stack: Vec<BindingLocator>,
 
+    // SAFETY: Nothing requires tracing, so this is safe.
+    #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
+    pub(crate) local_binings_initialized: Box<[bool]>,
+
     /// How many iterations a loop has done.
     pub(crate) loop_iteration_count: u64,
 
@@ -147,6 +154,7 @@ impl CallFrame {
         environments: EnvironmentStack,
         realm: Realm,
     ) -> Self {
+        let local_binings_initialized = code_block.local_bindings_initialized.clone();
         Self {
             code_block,
             pc: 0,
@@ -155,6 +163,7 @@ impl CallFrame {
             argument_count: 0,
             iterators: ThinVec::new(),
             binding_stack: Vec::new(),
+            local_binings_initialized,
             loop_iteration_count: 0,
             active_runnable,
             environments,
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/code_block.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/code_block.rs
index 0a7c2871b8..6c461b1b21 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/code_block.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/code_block.rs
@@ -7,14 +7,14 @@ use crate::{
         function::{OrdinaryFunction, ThisMode},
         OrdinaryObject,
     },
-    environments::{BindingLocator, CompileTimeEnvironment},
     object::JsObject,
     Context, JsBigInt, JsString, JsValue,
 };
 use bitflags::bitflags;
+use boa_ast::scope::{BindingLocator, Scope};
 use boa_gc::{empty_trace, Finalize, Gc, Trace};
 use boa_profiler::Profiler;
-use std::{cell::Cell, fmt::Display, mem::size_of, rc::Rc};
+use std::{cell::Cell, fmt::Display, mem::size_of};
 use thin_vec::ThinVec;
 
 use super::{InlineCache, Instruction, InstructionIterator};
@@ -112,11 +112,9 @@ pub(crate) enum Constant {
     Function(Gc<CodeBlock>),
     BigInt(#[unsafe_ignore_trace] JsBigInt),
 
-    /// Compile time environments in this function.
-    // Safety: Nothing in CompileTimeEnvironment needs tracing, so this is safe.
-    //
-    // TODO(#3034): Maybe changing this to Gc after garbage collection would be better than Rc.
-    CompileTimeEnvironment(#[unsafe_ignore_trace] Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment>),
+    /// Declarative or function scope.
+    // Safety: Nothing in `Scope` needs tracing, so this is safe.
+    Scope(#[unsafe_ignore_trace] Scope),
 }
 
 /// The internal representation of a JavaScript function.
@@ -157,6 +155,8 @@ pub struct CodeBlock {
     #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
     pub(crate) bindings: Box<[BindingLocator]>,
 
+    pub(crate) local_bindings_initialized: Box<[bool]>,
+
     /// Exception [`Handler`]s.
     #[unsafe_ignore_trace]
     pub(crate) handlers: ThinVec<Handler>,
@@ -176,6 +176,7 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             bytecode: Box::default(),
             constants: ThinVec::default(),
             bindings: Box::default(),
+            local_bindings_initialized: Box::default(),
             name,
             flags: Cell::new(flags),
             length,
@@ -308,21 +309,18 @@ impl CodeBlock {
         panic!("expected function constant at index {index}")
     }
 
-    /// Get the [`CompileTimeEnvironment`] constant from the [`CodeBlock`].
+    /// Get the [`Scope`] constant from the [`CodeBlock`].
     ///
     /// # Panics
     ///
-    /// If the type of the [`Constant`] is not [`Constant::CompileTimeEnvironment`].
+    /// If the type of the [`Constant`] is not [`Constant::Scope`].
     /// Or `index` is greater or equal to length of `constants`.
-    pub(crate) fn constant_compile_time_environment(
-        &self,
-        index: usize,
-    ) -> Rc<CompileTimeEnvironment> {
-        if let Some(Constant::CompileTimeEnvironment(value)) = self.constants.get(index) {
+    pub(crate) fn constant_scope(&self, index: usize) -> Scope {
+        if let Some(Constant::Scope(value)) = self.constants.get(index) {
             return value.clone();
         }
 
-        panic!("expected compile time environment constant at index {index}")
+        panic!("expected scope constant at index {index}")
     }
 }
 
@@ -416,8 +414,11 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             | Instruction::Coalesce { exit: value } => value.to_string(),
             Instruction::CallEval {
                 argument_count: value,
+                scope_index,
+            } => {
+                format!("{}, {}", value.value(), scope_index.value())
             }
-            | Instruction::Call {
+            Instruction::Call {
                 argument_count: value,
             }
             | Instruction::New {
@@ -428,9 +429,9 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             }
             | Instruction::ConcatToString { value_count: value }
             | Instruction::GetArgument { index: value } => value.value().to_string(),
-            Instruction::PushDeclarativeEnvironment {
-                compile_environments_index,
-            } => compile_environments_index.value().to_string(),
+            Instruction::PushScope { index } | Instruction::CallEvalSpread { index } => {
+                index.value().to_string()
+            }
             Instruction::CopyDataProperties {
                 excluded_key_count: value1,
                 excluded_key_count_computed: value2,
@@ -549,8 +550,12 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             } => {
                 format!("is_anonymous_function: {is_anonymous_function}")
             }
-            Instruction::PopIntoRegister { dst } => format!("dst:reg{}", dst.value()),
-            Instruction::PushFromRegister { src } => format!("src:reg{}", src.value()),
+            Instruction::PopIntoRegister { dst } | Instruction::PopIntoLocal { dst } => {
+                format!("dst:reg{}", dst.value())
+            }
+            Instruction::PushFromRegister { src } | Instruction::PushFromLocal { src } => {
+                format!("src:reg{}", src.value())
+            }
             Instruction::Pop
             | Instruction::Dup
             | Instruction::Swap
@@ -657,7 +662,6 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             | Instruction::NewTarget
             | Instruction::ImportMeta
             | Instruction::SuperCallPrepare
-            | Instruction::CallEvalSpread
             | Instruction::CallSpread
             | Instruction::NewSpread
             | Instruction::SuperCallSpread
@@ -724,9 +728,7 @@ impl CodeBlock {
             | Instruction::Reserved46
             | Instruction::Reserved47
             | Instruction::Reserved48
-            | Instruction::Reserved49
-            | Instruction::Reserved50
-            | Instruction::Reserved51 => unreachable!("Reserved opcodes are unrechable"),
+            | Instruction::Reserved49 => unreachable!("Reserved opcodes are unrechable"),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -800,11 +802,11 @@ impl Display for CodeBlock {
                         code.name().to_std_string_escaped(),
                         code.length
                     )?,
-                    Constant::CompileTimeEnvironment(v) => {
+                    Constant::Scope(v) => {
                         writeln!(
                             f,
-                            "[ENVIRONMENT] index: {}, bindings: {}",
-                            v.environment_index(),
+                            "[SCOPE] index: {}, bindings: {}",
+                            v.scope_index(),
                             v.num_bindings()
                         )?;
                     }
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/flowgraph/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/flowgraph/mod.rs
index 05d83a7ab1..baf607b03a 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/flowgraph/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/flowgraph/mod.rs
@@ -227,7 +227,7 @@ impl CodeBlock {
                     graph.add_node(previous_pc, NodeShape::None, label.into(), Color::None);
                     graph.add_edge(previous_pc, pc, None, Color::None, EdgeStyle::Line);
                 }
-                Instruction::PushDeclarativeEnvironment { .. } => {
+                Instruction::PushScope { .. } => {
                     let random = rand::random();
 
                     graph.add_node(
@@ -434,7 +434,7 @@ impl CodeBlock {
                 | Instruction::Await
                 | Instruction::NewTarget
                 | Instruction::ImportMeta
-                | Instruction::CallEvalSpread
+                | Instruction::CallEvalSpread { .. }
                 | Instruction::CallSpread
                 | Instruction::NewSpread
                 | Instruction::SuperCallSpread
@@ -457,6 +457,8 @@ impl CodeBlock {
                 | Instruction::CreateGlobalVarBinding { .. }
                 | Instruction::PopIntoRegister { .. }
                 | Instruction::PushFromRegister { .. }
+                | Instruction::PopIntoLocal { .. }
+                | Instruction::PushFromLocal { .. }
                 | Instruction::Nop => {
                     graph.add_node(previous_pc, NodeShape::None, label.into(), Color::None);
                     graph.add_edge(previous_pc, pc, None, Color::None, EdgeStyle::Line);
@@ -514,9 +516,7 @@ impl CodeBlock {
                 | Instruction::Reserved46
                 | Instruction::Reserved47
                 | Instruction::Reserved48
-                | Instruction::Reserved49
-                | Instruction::Reserved50
-                | Instruction::Reserved51 => unreachable!("Reserved opcodes are unrechable"),
+                | Instruction::Reserved49 => unreachable!("Reserved opcodes are unrechable"),
             }
         }
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/call/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/call/mod.rs
index 4519f589c9..7db445a0cd 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/call/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/call/mod.rs
@@ -15,7 +15,11 @@ use crate::{
 pub(crate) struct CallEval;
 
 impl CallEval {
-    fn operation(context: &mut Context, argument_count: usize) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+    fn operation(
+        context: &mut Context,
+        argument_count: usize,
+        scope_index: usize,
+    ) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
         let at = context.vm.stack.len() - argument_count;
         let func = &context.vm.stack[at - 1];
 
@@ -45,7 +49,14 @@ impl CallEval {
                 //     let strictCaller be true. Otherwise let strictCaller be false.
                 // v. Return ? PerformEval(evalArg, strictCaller, true).
                 let strict = context.vm.frame().code_block.strict();
-                let result = crate::builtins::eval::Eval::perform_eval(x, true, strict, context)?;
+                let scope = context.vm.frame().code_block().constant_scope(scope_index);
+                let result = crate::builtins::eval::Eval::perform_eval(
+                    x,
+                    true,
+                    Some(scope),
+                    strict,
+                    context,
+                )?;
                 context.vm.push(result);
             } else {
                 // NOTE: This is a deviation from the spec, to optimize the case when we dont pass anything to `eval`.
@@ -63,23 +74,24 @@ impl CallEval {
 impl Operation for CallEval {
     const NAME: &'static str = "CallEval";
     const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - CallEval";
-    // TODO: Calls will require a big refactor in order to track
-    // the cost of the call.
     const COST: u8 = 5;
 
     fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
         let argument_count = context.vm.read::<u8>();
-        Self::operation(context, argument_count as usize)
+        let scope_index = context.vm.read::<u8>();
+        Self::operation(context, argument_count as usize, scope_index as usize)
     }
 
     fn execute_with_u16_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
         let argument_count = context.vm.read::<u16>() as usize;
-        Self::operation(context, argument_count)
+        let scope_index = context.vm.read::<u16>();
+        Self::operation(context, argument_count, scope_index as usize)
     }
 
     fn execute_with_u32_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
         let argument_count = context.vm.read::<u32>();
-        Self::operation(context, argument_count as usize)
+        let scope_index = context.vm.read::<u32>();
+        Self::operation(context, argument_count as usize, scope_index as usize)
     }
 }
 
@@ -90,14 +102,8 @@ impl Operation for CallEval {
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
 pub(crate) struct CallEvalSpread;
 
-impl Operation for CallEvalSpread {
-    const NAME: &'static str = "CallEvalSpread";
-    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - CallEvalSpread";
-    // TODO: Calls will require a big refactor in order to track
-    // the cost of the call.
-    const COST: u8 = 5;
-
-    fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+impl CallEvalSpread {
+    fn operation(context: &mut Context, index: usize) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
         // Get the arguments that are stored as an array object on the stack.
         let arguments_array = context.vm.pop();
         let arguments_array_object = arguments_array
@@ -137,7 +143,14 @@ impl Operation for CallEvalSpread {
                 //     let strictCaller be true. Otherwise let strictCaller be false.
                 // v. Return ? PerformEval(evalArg, strictCaller, true).
                 let strict = context.vm.frame().code_block.strict();
-                let result = crate::builtins::eval::Eval::perform_eval(x, true, strict, context)?;
+                let scope = context.vm.frame().code_block().constant_scope(index);
+                let result = crate::builtins::eval::Eval::perform_eval(
+                    x,
+                    true,
+                    Some(scope),
+                    strict,
+                    context,
+                )?;
                 context.vm.push(result);
             } else {
                 // NOTE: This is a deviation from the spec, to optimize the case when we dont pass anything to `eval`.
@@ -155,6 +168,27 @@ impl Operation for CallEvalSpread {
     }
 }
 
+impl Operation for CallEvalSpread {
+    const NAME: &'static str = "CallEvalSpread";
+    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - CallEvalSpread";
+    const COST: u8 = 5;
+
+    fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u8>();
+        Self::operation(context, index as usize)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u16_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u16>();
+        Self::operation(context, index as usize)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u32_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u32>();
+        Self::operation(context, index as usize)
+    }
+}
+
 /// `Call` implements the Opcode Operation for `Opcode::Call`
 ///
 /// Operation:
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/define/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/define/mod.rs
index 71f5a20f20..ecc5cb4a7d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/define/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/define/mod.rs
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ impl DefVar {
         let binding_locator = context.vm.frame().code_block.bindings[index].clone();
 
         context.vm.environments.put_value_if_uninitialized(
-            binding_locator.environment(),
+            binding_locator.scope(),
             binding_locator.binding_index(),
             JsValue::undefined(),
         );
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ impl PutLexicalValue {
         let value = context.vm.pop();
         let binding_locator = context.vm.frame().code_block.bindings[index].clone();
         context.vm.environments.put_lexical_value(
-            binding_locator.environment(),
+            binding_locator.scope(),
             binding_locator.binding_index(),
             value,
         );
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/locals/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/locals/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..20d4e62633
--- /dev/null
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/locals/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+use crate::{
+    vm::{opcode::Operation, CompletionType},
+    Context, JsNativeError, JsResult,
+};
+
+/// `PopIntoLocal` implements the Opcode Operation for `Opcode::PopIntoLocal`
+///
+/// Operation:
+///  - Pop value from the stack and push to a local binding register `dst`.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(crate) struct PopIntoLocal;
+
+impl PopIntoLocal {
+    #[allow(clippy::unnecessary_wraps)]
+    #[allow(clippy::needless_pass_by_value)]
+    fn operation(dst: u32, context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        context.vm.frame_mut().local_binings_initialized[dst as usize] = true;
+        let value = context.vm.pop();
+
+        let rp = context.vm.frame().rp;
+        context.vm.stack[(rp + dst) as usize] = value;
+        Ok(CompletionType::Normal)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Operation for PopIntoLocal {
+    const NAME: &'static str = "PopIntoLocal";
+    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - PopIntoLocal";
+    const COST: u8 = 2;
+
+    fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = u32::from(context.vm.read::<u8>());
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u16_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = u32::from(context.vm.read::<u16>());
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u32_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = context.vm.read::<u32>();
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+}
+
+/// `PushFromLocal` implements the Opcode Operation for `Opcode::PushFromLocal`
+///
+/// Operation:
+///  - Copy value at local binding register `src` and push it into the stack.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub(crate) struct PushFromLocal;
+
+impl PushFromLocal {
+    #[allow(clippy::unnecessary_wraps)]
+    #[allow(clippy::needless_pass_by_value)]
+    fn operation(dst: u32, context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        if !context.vm.frame().local_binings_initialized[dst as usize] {
+            return Err(JsNativeError::reference()
+                .with_message("access to uninitialized binding")
+                .into());
+        }
+        let rp = context.vm.frame().rp;
+        let value = context.vm.stack[(rp + dst) as usize].clone();
+        context.vm.push(value);
+        Ok(CompletionType::Normal)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Operation for PushFromLocal {
+    const NAME: &'static str = "PushFromLocal";
+    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - PushFromLocal";
+    const COST: u8 = 2;
+
+    fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = u32::from(context.vm.read::<u8>());
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u16_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = u32::from(context.vm.read::<u16>());
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+
+    fn execute_with_u32_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let dst = context.vm.read::<u32>();
+        Self::operation(dst, context)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/mod.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/mod.rs
index 92812e4642..5d2f075c8a 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/mod.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/mod.rs
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@ mod generator;
 mod get;
 mod global;
 mod iteration;
+mod locals;
 mod meta;
 mod modifier;
 mod new;
@@ -65,6 +66,8 @@ pub(crate) use global::*;
 #[doc(inline)]
 pub(crate) use iteration::*;
 #[doc(inline)]
+pub(crate) use locals::*;
+#[doc(inline)]
 pub(crate) use meta::*;
 #[doc(inline)]
 pub(crate) use modifier::*;
@@ -1698,17 +1701,17 @@ generate_opcodes! {
 
     /// Call a function named "eval".
     ///
-    /// Operands: argument_count: `VaryingOperand`
+    /// Operands: argument_count: `VaryingOperand`, scope_index: `VaryingOperand`
     ///
     /// Stack: this, func, argument_1, ... argument_n **=>** result
-    CallEval { argument_count: VaryingOperand },
+    CallEval { argument_count: VaryingOperand, scope_index: VaryingOperand },
 
     /// Call a function named "eval" where the arguments contain spreads.
     ///
     /// Operands:
     ///
     /// Stack: this, func, arguments_array **=>** result
-    CallEvalSpread,
+    CallEvalSpread { index: VaryingOperand },
 
     /// Call a function.
     ///
@@ -1794,12 +1797,26 @@ generate_opcodes! {
     /// Stack: **=>** value
     PushFromRegister { src: VaryingOperand },
 
+    /// Pop value from the stack and push to a local binding register `dst`.
+    ///
+    /// Operands:
+    ///
+    /// Stack: value **=>**
+    PopIntoLocal { dst: VaryingOperand },
+
+    /// Copy value at local binding register `src` and push it into the stack.
+    ///
+    /// Operands:
+    ///
+    /// Stack: **=>** value
+    PushFromLocal { src: VaryingOperand },
+
     /// Push a declarative environment.
     ///
-    /// Operands: compile_environments_index: `VaryingOperand`
+    /// Operands: index: `VaryingOperand`
     ///
     /// Stack: **=>**
-    PushDeclarativeEnvironment { compile_environments_index: VaryingOperand },
+    PushScope { index: VaryingOperand },
 
     /// Push an object environment.
     ///
@@ -2265,10 +2282,6 @@ generate_opcodes! {
     Reserved48 => Reserved,
     /// Reserved [`Opcode`].
     Reserved49 => Reserved,
-    /// Reserved [`Opcode`].
-    Reserved50 => Reserved,
-    /// Reserved [`Opcode`].
-    Reserved51 => Reserved,
 }
 
 /// Specific opcodes for bindings.
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/push/environment.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/push/environment.rs
index ca2a5e2e64..cfd66eca84 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/push/environment.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/push/environment.rs
@@ -6,47 +6,40 @@ use crate::{
 };
 use boa_gc::Gc;
 
-/// `PushDeclarativeEnvironment` implements the Opcode Operation for `Opcode::PushDeclarativeEnvironment`
+/// `PushScope` implements the Opcode Operation for `Opcode::PushScope`
 ///
 /// Operation:
 ///  - Push a declarative environment
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
-pub(crate) struct PushDeclarativeEnvironment;
+pub(crate) struct PushScope;
 
-impl PushDeclarativeEnvironment {
+impl PushScope {
     #[allow(clippy::unnecessary_wraps)]
-    fn operation(
-        context: &mut Context,
-        compile_environments_index: usize,
-    ) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
-        let compile_environment = context
-            .vm
-            .frame()
-            .code_block()
-            .constant_compile_time_environment(compile_environments_index);
-        context.vm.environments.push_lexical(compile_environment);
+    fn operation(context: &mut Context, index: usize) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
+        let scope = context.vm.frame().code_block().constant_scope(index);
+        context.vm.environments.push_lexical(scope.num_bindings());
         Ok(CompletionType::Normal)
     }
 }
 
-impl Operation for PushDeclarativeEnvironment {
-    const NAME: &'static str = "PushDeclarativeEnvironment";
-    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - PushDeclarativeEnvironment";
+impl Operation for PushScope {
+    const NAME: &'static str = "PushScope";
+    const INSTRUCTION: &'static str = "INST - PushScope";
     const COST: u8 = 3;
 
     fn execute(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
-        let compile_environments_index = context.vm.read::<u8>() as usize;
-        Self::operation(context, compile_environments_index)
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u8>() as usize;
+        Self::operation(context, index)
     }
 
     fn execute_with_u16_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
-        let compile_environments_index = context.vm.read::<u16>() as usize;
-        Self::operation(context, compile_environments_index)
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u16>() as usize;
+        Self::operation(context, index)
     }
 
     fn execute_with_u32_operands(context: &mut Context) -> JsResult<CompletionType> {
-        let compile_environments_index = context.vm.read::<u32>() as usize;
-        Self::operation(context, compile_environments_index)
+        let index = context.vm.read::<u32>() as usize;
+        Self::operation(context, index)
     }
 }
 
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/set/name.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/set/name.rs
index 244c25e6c6..2d2fa2ec37 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/set/name.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/opcode/set/name.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
+use boa_ast::scope::{BindingLocator, BindingLocatorScope};
+
 use crate::{
-    environments::{BindingLocator, BindingLocatorEnvironment, Environment},
+    environments::Environment,
     vm::{opcode::Operation, CompletionType},
     Context, JsNativeError, JsResult,
 };
@@ -125,17 +127,17 @@ fn verify_initialized(locator: &BindingLocator, context: &mut Context) -> JsResu
         let key = locator.name();
         let strict = context.vm.frame().code_block.strict();
 
-        let message = match locator.environment() {
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject if strict => Some(format!(
+        let message = match locator.scope() {
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject if strict => Some(format!(
                 "cannot assign to uninitialized global property `{}`",
                 key.to_std_string_escaped()
             )),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalObject => None,
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::GlobalDeclarative => Some(format!(
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalObject => None,
+            BindingLocatorScope::GlobalDeclarative => Some(format!(
                 "cannot assign to uninitialized binding `{}`",
                 key.to_std_string_escaped()
             )),
-            BindingLocatorEnvironment::Stack(index) => match context.environment_expect(index) {
+            BindingLocatorScope::Stack(index) => match context.environment_expect(index) {
                 Environment::Declarative(_) => Some(format!(
                     "cannot assign to uninitialized binding `{}`",
                     key.to_std_string_escaped()
diff --git a/core/engine/src/vm/runtime_limits.rs b/core/engine/src/vm/runtime_limits.rs
index bc78205ffa..e62a8e433d 100644
--- a/core/engine/src/vm/runtime_limits.rs
+++ b/core/engine/src/vm/runtime_limits.rs
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ impl Default for RuntimeLimits {
         Self {
             loop_iteration_limit: u64::MAX,
             resursion_limit: 512,
-            stack_size_limit: 1024,
+            stack_size_limit: 1024 * 10,
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/arrow_function.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/arrow_function.rs
index 2193187432..dbf4ec4560 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/arrow_function.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/arrow_function.rs
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
     function::{FormalParameter, FormalParameterList},
     operations::{contains, ContainsSymbol},
     statement::Return,
-    Expression, Punctuator, StatementList,
+    Expression, Punctuator,
 };
 use boa_interner::Interner;
 use boa_profiler::Profiler;
@@ -98,18 +98,6 @@ where
                 )
             };
 
-        cursor.peek_expect_no_lineterminator(0, "arrow function", interner)?;
-
-        cursor.expect(
-            TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::Arrow),
-            "arrow function",
-            interner,
-        )?;
-        let arrow = cursor.arrow();
-        cursor.set_arrow(true);
-        let body = ConciseBody::new(self.allow_in).parse(cursor, interner)?;
-        cursor.set_arrow(arrow);
-
         // Early Error: ArrowFormalParameters are UniqueFormalParameters.
         if params.has_duplicates() {
             return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
@@ -134,6 +122,18 @@ where
             )));
         }
 
+        cursor.peek_expect_no_lineterminator(0, "arrow function", interner)?;
+
+        cursor.expect(
+            TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::Arrow),
+            "arrow function",
+            interner,
+        )?;
+        let arrow = cursor.arrow();
+        cursor.set_arrow(true);
+        let body = ConciseBody::new(self.allow_in).parse(cursor, interner)?;
+        cursor.set_arrow(arrow);
+
         // Early Error: It is a Syntax Error if ConciseBodyContainsUseStrict of ConciseBody is true
         // and IsSimpleParameterList of ArrowParameters is false.
         if body.strict() && !params.is_simple() {
@@ -182,23 +182,23 @@ where
     type Output = ast::function::FunctionBody;
 
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
-        let stmts =
-            match cursor.peek(0, interner).or_abrupt()?.kind() {
-                TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::OpenBlock) => {
-                    cursor.advance(interner);
-                    let body = FunctionBody::new(false, false).parse(cursor, interner)?;
-                    cursor.expect(Punctuator::CloseBlock, "arrow function", interner)?;
-                    body
-                }
-                _ => ast::function::FunctionBody::new(StatementList::from(vec![
-                    ast::Statement::Return(Return::new(
-                        ExpressionBody::new(self.allow_in, false)
-                            .parse(cursor, interner)?
-                            .into(),
-                    ))
-                    .into(),
-                ])),
-            };
+        let stmts = match cursor.peek(0, interner).or_abrupt()?.kind() {
+            TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::OpenBlock) => {
+                cursor.advance(interner);
+                let body = FunctionBody::new(false, false).parse(cursor, interner)?;
+                cursor.expect(Punctuator::CloseBlock, "arrow function", interner)?;
+                body
+            }
+            _ => ast::function::FunctionBody::new(
+                [ast::Statement::Return(Return::new(
+                    ExpressionBody::new(self.allow_in, false)
+                        .parse(cursor, interner)?
+                        .into(),
+                ))
+                .into()],
+                false,
+            ),
+        };
 
         Ok(stmts)
     }
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/async_arrow_function.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/async_arrow_function.rs
index 1698993f36..db8a4940cf 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/async_arrow_function.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/assignment/async_arrow_function.rs
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
     declaration::Variable,
     function::{FormalParameter, FormalParameterList},
     statement::Return,
-    Punctuator, StatementList,
+    Punctuator,
 };
 use boa_interner::Interner;
 use boa_profiler::Profiler;
@@ -173,23 +173,23 @@ where
     type Output = ast::function::FunctionBody;
 
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
-        let body =
-            match cursor.peek(0, interner).or_abrupt()?.kind() {
-                TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::OpenBlock) => {
-                    cursor.advance(interner);
-                    let body = FunctionBody::new(false, true).parse(cursor, interner)?;
-                    cursor.expect(Punctuator::CloseBlock, "async arrow function", interner)?;
-                    body
-                }
-                _ => ast::function::FunctionBody::new(StatementList::from(vec![
-                    ast::Statement::Return(Return::new(
-                        ExpressionBody::new(self.allow_in, true)
-                            .parse(cursor, interner)?
-                            .into(),
-                    ))
-                    .into(),
-                ])),
-            };
+        let body = match cursor.peek(0, interner).or_abrupt()?.kind() {
+            TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::OpenBlock) => {
+                cursor.advance(interner);
+                let body = FunctionBody::new(false, true).parse(cursor, interner)?;
+                cursor.expect(Punctuator::CloseBlock, "async arrow function", interner)?;
+                body
+            }
+            _ => ast::function::FunctionBody::new(
+                [ast::Statement::Return(Return::new(
+                    ExpressionBody::new(self.allow_in, true)
+                        .parse(cursor, interner)?
+                        .into(),
+                ))
+                .into()],
+                false,
+            ),
+        };
 
         Ok(body)
     }
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_function_expression/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_function_expression/tests.rs
index c4122e5ec3..b2b7da43ef 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_function_expression/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_function_expression/tests.rs
@@ -27,10 +27,10 @@ fn check_async_expression() {
                         Some(add.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into())),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ fn check_nested_async_expression() {
                         Some(a.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
+                            [Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
                                 vec![Variable::from_identifier(
                                     b.into(),
                                     Some(
@@ -73,11 +73,11 @@ fn check_nested_async_expression() {
                                             Some(b.into()),
                                             FormalParameterList::default(),
                                             FunctionBody::new(
-                                                vec![Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(
+                                                [Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(
                                                     Literal::from(1).into(),
                                                 )))
-                                                .into()]
-                                                .into(),
+                                                .into()],
+                                                false,
                                             ),
                                             false,
                                         )
@@ -87,8 +87,8 @@ fn check_nested_async_expression() {
                                 .try_into()
                                 .unwrap(),
                             ))
-                            .into()]
-                            .into(),
+                            .into()],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_generator_expression/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_generator_expression/tests.rs
index 82a8fdc7c5..fc967459ea 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_generator_expression/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/async_generator_expression/tests.rs
@@ -28,10 +28,10 @@ fn check_async_generator_expr() {
                         Some(add.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into())),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ fn check_nested_async_generator_expr() {
                         Some(a.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
+                            [Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
                                 vec![Variable::from_identifier(
                                     b.into(),
                                     Some(
@@ -74,12 +74,10 @@ fn check_nested_async_generator_expr() {
                                             Some(b.into()),
                                             FormalParameterList::default(),
                                             FunctionBody::new(
-                                                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(
-                                                    Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(
-                                                        Literal::from(1).into(),
-                                                    ))),
-                                                )]
-                                                .into(),
+                                                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                                                    Return::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into())),
+                                                ))],
+                                                false,
                                             ),
                                             false,
                                         )
@@ -89,8 +87,8 @@ fn check_nested_async_generator_expr() {
                                 .try_into()
                                 .unwrap(),
                             ))
-                            .into()]
-                            .into(),
+                            .into()],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/function_expression/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/function_expression/tests.rs
index e56edc5bc8..8786bde77a 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/function_expression/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/function_expression/tests.rs
@@ -27,10 +27,10 @@ fn check_function_expression() {
                         Some(add.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into())),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ fn check_nested_function_expression() {
                         Some(a.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
+                            [Declaration::Lexical(LexicalDeclaration::Const(
                                 vec![Variable::from_identifier(
                                     b.into(),
                                     Some(
@@ -73,12 +73,10 @@ fn check_nested_function_expression() {
                                             Some(b.into()),
                                             FormalParameterList::default(),
                                             FunctionBody::new(
-                                                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(
-                                                    Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(
-                                                        Literal::from(1).into(),
-                                                    ))),
-                                                )]
-                                                .into(),
+                                                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                                                    Return::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into())),
+                                                ))],
+                                                false,
                                             ),
                                             false,
                                         )
@@ -88,8 +86,8 @@ fn check_nested_function_expression() {
                                 .try_into()
                                 .unwrap(),
                             ))
-                            .into()]
-                            .into(),
+                            .into()],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
@@ -116,13 +114,14 @@ fn check_function_non_reserved_keyword() {
                             Some($interner.get_or_intern_static($keyword, utf16!($keyword)).into()),
                             FormalParameterList::default(),
                             FunctionBody::new(
-                                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(
+                                [StatementListItem::Statement(
                                     Statement::Return(
                                         Return::new(
                                             Some(Literal::from(1).into())
                                         )
                                     )
-                                )].into()
+                                )],
+                                false,
                             ),
                             true,
                         )
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/generator_expression/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/generator_expression/tests.rs
index 5b633992ef..6e46f517c1 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/generator_expression/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/generator_expression/tests.rs
@@ -25,10 +25,10 @@ fn check_generator_function_expression() {
                         Some(gen.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Expression(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Expression(
                                 Expression::from(Yield::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into()), false)),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
@@ -60,10 +60,10 @@ fn check_generator_function_delegate_yield_expression() {
                         Some(gen.into()),
                         FormalParameterList::default(),
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Expression(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Expression(
                                 Expression::from(Yield::new(Some(Literal::from(1).into()), true)),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                         false,
                     )
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/object_initializer/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/object_initializer/mod.rs
index 8ec83d6c1d..c292502627 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/object_initializer/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/primary/object_initializer/mod.rs
@@ -31,12 +31,15 @@ use boa_ast::{
         },
         Identifier,
     },
-    function::{ClassElementName as ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, PrivateName},
+    function::{
+        ClassElementName as ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList,
+        FunctionBody as FunctionBodyAst, PrivateName,
+    },
     operations::{
         bound_names, contains, has_direct_super_new, lexically_declared_names, ContainsSymbol,
     },
     property::{MethodDefinitionKind, PropertyName as PropertyNameNode},
-    Expression, Keyword, Punctuator, Script,
+    Expression, Keyword, Punctuator,
 };
 use boa_interner::{Interner, Sym};
 use boa_profiler::Profiler;
@@ -749,7 +752,7 @@ impl<R> TokenParser<R> for GeneratorMethod
 where
     R: ReadChar,
 {
-    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, Script);
+    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, FunctionBodyAst);
 
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
         let _timer = Profiler::global().start_event("GeneratorMethod", "Parsing");
@@ -845,7 +848,7 @@ impl<R> TokenParser<R> for AsyncGeneratorMethod
 where
     R: ReadChar,
 {
-    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, Script);
+    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, FunctionBodyAst);
 
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
         let _timer = Profiler::global().start_event("AsyncGeneratorMethod", "Parsing");
@@ -955,7 +958,7 @@ impl<R> TokenParser<R> for AsyncMethod
 where
     R: ReadChar,
 {
-    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, Script);
+    type Output = (ClassElementNameNode, FormalParameterList, FunctionBodyAst);
 
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
         let _timer = Profiler::global().start_event("AsyncMethod", "Parsing");
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/tests.rs
index 3d3b6ef6c6..37754d63ea 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/expression/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/expression/tests.rs
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@ use boa_ast::{
         },
         Call, Identifier, Parenthesized, RegExpLiteral,
     },
-    function::{AsyncArrowFunction, FormalParameter, FormalParameterList},
-    Declaration, Expression, Script, Statement,
+    function::{AsyncArrowFunction, FormalParameter, FormalParameterList, FunctionBody},
+    Declaration, Expression, Statement,
 };
 use boa_interner::{Interner, Sym};
 use boa_macros::utf16;
@@ -701,7 +701,7 @@ fn parse_async_arrow_function_named_of() {
                     ),
                     false,
                 )]),
-                Script::default(),
+                FunctionBody::default(),
             )))
             .into(),
         ],
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/function/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/function/mod.rs
index 1f48e08612..8e51d20455 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/function/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/function/mod.rs
@@ -455,7 +455,7 @@ where
     fn parse(self, cursor: &mut Cursor<R>, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<Self::Output> {
         let _timer = Profiler::global().start_event("FunctionStatementList", "Parsing");
 
-        let statement_list = StatementList::new(
+        let body = StatementList::new(
             self.allow_yield,
             self.allow_await,
             true,
@@ -465,20 +465,20 @@ where
         )
         .parse(cursor, interner)?;
 
-        if let Err(error) = check_labels(&statement_list) {
+        if let Err(error) = check_labels(&body) {
             return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
                 error.message(interner).into(),
                 Position::new(1, 1),
             )));
         }
 
-        if contains_invalid_object_literal(&statement_list) {
+        if contains_invalid_object_literal(&body) {
             return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
                 "invalid object literal in function statement list".into(),
                 Position::new(1, 1),
             )));
         }
 
-        Ok(ast::function::FunctionBody::new(statement_list))
+        Ok(body.into())
     }
 }
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/function/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/function/tests.rs
index f3b9c7050d..487a03bf45 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/function/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/function/tests.rs
@@ -32,12 +32,12 @@ fn check_basic() {
             interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into(),
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(Some(
                         Identifier::from(interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a"))).into(),
                     )),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         ))
         .into()],
@@ -70,12 +70,12 @@ fn check_duplicates_strict_off() {
             interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into(),
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(Some(
                         Identifier::from(interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a"))).into(),
                     )),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         ))
         .into()],
@@ -106,12 +106,12 @@ fn check_basic_semicolon_insertion() {
             interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into(),
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(Some(
                         Identifier::from(interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a"))).into(),
                     )),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         ))
         .into()],
@@ -135,10 +135,10 @@ fn check_empty_return() {
             interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into(),
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(None),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         ))
         .into()],
@@ -162,10 +162,10 @@ fn check_empty_return_semicolon_insertion() {
             interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into(),
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(None),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         ))
         .into()],
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ fn check_arrow() {
             None,
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(Some(
                         Binary::new(
                             ArithmeticOp::Add.into(),
@@ -295,8 +295,8 @@ fn check_arrow() {
                         )
                         .into(),
                     )),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         )))
         .into()],
@@ -324,7 +324,7 @@ fn check_arrow_semicolon_insertion() {
             None,
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(Some(
                         Binary::new(
                             ArithmeticOp::Add.into(),
@@ -333,8 +333,8 @@ fn check_arrow_semicolon_insertion() {
                         )
                         .into(),
                     )),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         )))
         .into()],
@@ -362,10 +362,10 @@ fn check_arrow_epty_return() {
             None,
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(None),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         )))
         .into()],
@@ -393,10 +393,10 @@ fn check_arrow_empty_return_semicolon_insertion() {
             None,
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                     Return::new(None),
-                ))]
-                .into(),
+                ))],
+                false,
             ),
         )))
         .into()],
@@ -423,15 +423,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -464,15 +464,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_nobrackets() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -505,15 +505,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_noparenthesis() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -546,15 +546,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_noparenthesis_nobrackets() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -593,15 +593,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_2arg() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -640,15 +640,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_2arg_nobrackets() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -691,15 +691,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_3arg() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
@@ -742,15 +742,15 @@ fn check_arrow_assignment_3arg_nobrackets() {
                         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("foo", utf16!("foo")).into()),
                         params,
                         FunctionBody::new(
-                            vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                            [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                                 Return::new(Some(
                                     Identifier::new(
                                         interner.get_or_intern_static("a", utf16!("a")),
                                     )
                                     .into(),
                                 )),
-                            ))]
-                            .into(),
+                            ))],
+                            false,
                         ),
                     )
                     .into(),
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/mod.rs
index ada983b6e2..2dc352c860 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/mod.rs
@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
         all_private_identifiers_valid, check_labels, contains, contains_invalid_object_literal,
         lexically_declared_names, var_declared_names, ContainsSymbol,
     },
+    scope::Scope,
     Position, StatementList,
 };
 use boa_interner::Interner;
@@ -139,9 +140,20 @@ impl<'a, R: ReadChar> Parser<'a, R> {
     /// Will return `Err` on any parsing error, including invalid reads of the bytes being parsed.
     ///
     /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-Script
-    pub fn parse_script(&mut self, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<boa_ast::Script> {
+    pub fn parse_script(
+        &mut self,
+        scope: &Scope,
+        interner: &mut Interner,
+    ) -> ParseResult<boa_ast::Script> {
         self.cursor.set_goal(InputElement::HashbangOrRegExp);
-        ScriptParser::new(false).parse(&mut self.cursor, interner)
+        let mut ast = ScriptParser::new(false).parse(&mut self.cursor, interner)?;
+        if !ast.analyze_scope(scope, interner) {
+            return Err(Error::general(
+                "invalid scope analysis",
+                Position::new(1, 1),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(ast)
     }
 
     /// Parse the full input as an [ECMAScript Module][spec] into the boa AST representation.
@@ -152,12 +164,23 @@ impl<'a, R: ReadChar> Parser<'a, R> {
     /// Will return `Err` on any parsing error, including invalid reads of the bytes being parsed.
     ///
     /// [spec]: https://tc39.es/ecma262/#prod-Module
-    pub fn parse_module(&mut self, interner: &mut Interner) -> ParseResult<boa_ast::Module>
+    pub fn parse_module(
+        &mut self,
+        scope: &Scope,
+        interner: &mut Interner,
+    ) -> ParseResult<boa_ast::Module>
     where
         R: ReadChar,
     {
         self.cursor.set_goal(InputElement::HashbangOrRegExp);
-        ModuleParser.parse(&mut self.cursor, interner)
+        let mut module = ModuleParser.parse(&mut self.cursor, interner)?;
+        if !module.analyze_scope(scope, interner) {
+            return Err(Error::general(
+                "invalid scope analysis",
+                Position::new(1, 1),
+            ));
+        }
+        Ok(module)
     }
 
     /// [`19.2.1.1 PerformEval ( x, strictCaller, direct )`][spec]
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/block/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/block/tests.rs
index 5270bd2d0b..1d1e917093 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/block/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/block/tests.rs
@@ -82,10 +82,10 @@ fn non_empty() {
                 hello.into(),
                 FormalParameterList::default(),
                 FunctionBody::new(
-                    vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                    [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                         Return::new(Some(Literal::from(10).into())),
-                    ))]
-                    .into(),
+                    ))],
+                    false,
                 ),
             ))
             .into(),
@@ -139,10 +139,10 @@ fn hoisting() {
                 hello.into(),
                 FormalParameterList::default(),
                 FunctionBody::new(
-                    vec![StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
+                    [StatementListItem::Statement(Statement::Return(
                         Return::new(Some(Literal::from(10).into())),
-                    ))]
-                    .into(),
+                    ))],
+                    false,
                 ),
             ))
             .into(),
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/mod.rs
index de2d0e2f84..d878d77d96 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/mod.rs
@@ -26,8 +26,9 @@ use boa_ast::{
     self as ast,
     expression::Identifier,
     function::{
-        self, ClassDeclaration as ClassDeclarationNode, ClassElementName, ClassMethodDefinition,
-        FormalParameterList, FunctionExpression,
+        self, ClassDeclaration as ClassDeclarationNode, ClassElementName, ClassFieldDefinition,
+        ClassMethodDefinition, FormalParameterList, FunctionExpression, PrivateFieldDefinition,
+        StaticBlockBody,
     },
     operations::{contains, contains_arguments, ContainsSymbol},
     Expression, Keyword, Punctuator,
@@ -414,8 +415,8 @@ where
                         }
                     }
                 }
-                function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(name, init) => {
-                    if let Some(node) = init {
+                function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    if let Some(node) = field.field() {
                         if contains(node, ContainsSymbol::SuperCall) {
                             return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
                                 "invalid super usage".into(),
@@ -424,7 +425,7 @@ where
                         }
                     }
                     if private_elements_names
-                        .insert(name.description(), PrivateElement::Value)
+                        .insert(field.name().description(), PrivateElement::Value)
                         .is_some()
                     {
                         return Err(Error::general(
@@ -452,16 +453,18 @@ where
                         ));
                     }
                 }
-                function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(_, Some(node))
-                | function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(_, Some(node)) => {
-                    if contains(node, ContainsSymbol::SuperCall) {
-                        return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
-                            "invalid super usage".into(),
-                            position,
-                        )));
+                function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
+                | function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                    if let Some(field) = field.field() {
+                        if contains(field, ContainsSymbol::SuperCall) {
+                            return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
+                                "invalid super usage".into(),
+                                position,
+                            )));
+                        }
                     }
                 }
-                _ => {}
+                function::ClassElement::StaticBlock(_) => {}
             }
             elements.push(element);
         }
@@ -675,7 +678,7 @@ where
                     cursor.set_strict(strict);
                     statement_list
                 };
-                function::ClassElement::StaticBlock(function::FunctionBody::new(statement_list))
+                function::ClassElement::StaticBlock(StaticBlockBody::new(statement_list.into()))
             }
             TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::Mul) => {
                 let token = cursor.peek(1, interner).or_abrupt()?;
@@ -937,16 +940,14 @@ where
                     }
                     _ => {
                         cursor.expect_semicolon("expected semicolon", interner)?;
+                        let field = ClassFieldDefinition::new(
+                            ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::GET),
+                            None,
+                        );
                         if r#static {
-                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(
-                                ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::GET),
-                                None,
-                            )
+                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field)
                         } else {
-                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(
-                                ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::GET),
-                                None,
-                            )
+                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -1055,16 +1056,14 @@ where
                     }
                     _ => {
                         cursor.expect_semicolon("expected semicolon", interner)?;
+                        let field = ClassFieldDefinition::new(
+                            ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::SET),
+                            None,
+                        );
                         if r#static {
-                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(
-                                ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::SET),
-                                None,
-                            )
+                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field)
                         } else {
-                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(
-                                ast::property::PropertyName::Literal(Sym::SET),
-                                None,
-                            )
+                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -1102,8 +1101,7 @@ where
                             )
                         } else {
                             function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(
-                                PrivateName::new(name),
-                                Some(rhs),
+                                PrivateFieldDefinition::new(PrivateName::new(name), Some(rhs)),
                             )
                         }
                     }
@@ -1150,8 +1148,7 @@ where
                             )
                         } else {
                             function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(
-                                PrivateName::new(name),
-                                None,
+                                PrivateFieldDefinition::new(PrivateName::new(name), None),
                             )
                         }
                     }
@@ -1195,10 +1192,11 @@ where
                         if let Some(name) = name.literal() {
                             rhs.set_anonymous_function_definition_name(&Identifier::new(name));
                         }
+                        let field = ClassFieldDefinition::new(name, Some(rhs));
                         if r#static {
-                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, Some(rhs))
+                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field)
                         } else {
-                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, Some(rhs))
+                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
                         }
                     }
                     TokenKind::Punctuator(Punctuator::OpenParen) => {
@@ -1259,10 +1257,11 @@ where
                             }
                         }
                         cursor.expect_semicolon("expected semicolon", interner)?;
+                        let field = ClassFieldDefinition::new(name, None);
                         if r#static {
-                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(name, None)
+                            function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field)
                         } else {
-                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(name, None)
+                            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
                         }
                     }
                 }
@@ -1273,10 +1272,28 @@ where
         match &element {
             // FieldDefinition : ClassElementName Initializer [opt]
             // It is a Syntax Error if Initializer is present and ContainsArguments of Initializer is true.
-            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(_, Some(node))
-            | function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(_, Some(node))
-            | function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(_, Some(node))
-            | function::ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, Some(node)) => {
+            function::ClassElement::FieldDefinition(field)
+            | function::ClassElement::StaticFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                if let Some(field) = field.field() {
+                    if contains_arguments(field) {
+                        return Err(Error::general(
+                            "'arguments' not allowed in class field definition",
+                            position,
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            function::ClassElement::PrivateFieldDefinition(field) => {
+                if let Some(node) = field.field() {
+                    if contains_arguments(node) {
+                        return Err(Error::general(
+                            "'arguments' not allowed in class field definition",
+                            position,
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            function::ClassElement::PrivateStaticFieldDefinition(_, Some(node)) => {
                 if contains_arguments(node) {
                     return Err(Error::general(
                         "'arguments' not allowed in class field definition",
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/tests.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/tests.rs
index cce7f5b748..95305bd81e 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/tests.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/declaration/hoistable/class_decl/tests.rs
@@ -7,11 +7,11 @@ use boa_ast::{
         Call, Identifier,
     },
     function::{
-        ClassDeclaration, ClassElement, ClassMethodDefinition, FormalParameterList, FunctionBody,
-        FunctionExpression,
+        ClassDeclaration, ClassElement, ClassFieldDefinition, ClassMethodDefinition,
+        FormalParameterList, FunctionBody, FunctionExpression,
     },
     property::{MethodDefinitionKind, PropertyName},
-    Declaration, Expression, Statement, StatementList, StatementListItem,
+    Declaration, Expression, Statement, StatementListItem,
 };
 use boa_interner::Interner;
 use boa_macros::utf16;
@@ -50,10 +50,10 @@ fn check_async_ordinary_method() {
 fn check_async_field_initialization() {
     let interner = &mut Interner::default();
 
-    let elements = vec![ClassElement::FieldDefinition(
+    let elements = vec![ClassElement::FieldDefinition(ClassFieldDefinition::new(
         PropertyName::Literal(interner.get_or_intern_static("async", utf16!("async"))),
         Some(Literal::from(1).into()),
-    )];
+    ))];
 
     check_script_parser(
         "class A {
@@ -76,10 +76,10 @@ fn check_async_field_initialization() {
 fn check_async_field() {
     let interner = &mut Interner::default();
 
-    let elements = vec![ClassElement::FieldDefinition(
+    let elements = vec![ClassElement::FieldDefinition(ClassFieldDefinition::new(
         PropertyName::Literal(interner.get_or_intern_static("async", utf16!("async"))),
         None,
-    )];
+    ))];
 
     check_script_parser(
         "class A {
@@ -121,10 +121,7 @@ fn check_new_target_with_property_access() {
     let constructor = FunctionExpression::new(
         Some(interner.get_or_intern_static("A", utf16!("A")).into()),
         FormalParameterList::default(),
-        FunctionBody::new(StatementList::new(
-            [Statement::Expression(console).into()],
-            false,
-        )),
+        FunctionBody::new([Statement::Expression(console).into()], false),
         false,
     );
 
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/iteration/for_statement.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/iteration/for_statement.rs
index 5c0363b4e8..cd39238255 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/statement/iteration/for_statement.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/statement/iteration/for_statement.rs
@@ -262,16 +262,15 @@ where
             (init, _) => init,
         };
 
-        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Const(
-            ref list,
-        ))) = init
-        {
-            for decl in list.as_ref() {
-                if decl.init().is_none() {
-                    return Err(Error::general(
-                        "Expected initializer for const declaration",
-                        position,
-                    ));
+        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(initializer)) = &init {
+            if let ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Const(list) = initializer.declaration() {
+                for decl in list.as_ref() {
+                    if decl.init().is_none() {
+                        return Err(Error::general(
+                            "Expected initializer for const declaration",
+                            position,
+                        ));
+                    }
                 }
             }
         }
@@ -313,9 +312,9 @@ where
         // Early Error: It is a Syntax Error if any element of the BoundNames of
         // LexicalDeclaration also occurs in the VarDeclaredNames of Statement.
         // Note: only applies to lexical bindings.
-        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(ref decl)) = init {
+        if let Some(ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(initializer)) = &init {
             let vars = var_declared_names(&body);
-            for name in bound_names(decl) {
+            for name in bound_names(initializer.declaration()) {
                 if vars.contains(&name) {
                     return Err(Error::general(
                         "For loop initializer declared in loop body",
@@ -381,30 +380,32 @@ fn initializer_to_iterable_loop_initializer(
                 ))),
             }
         }
-        ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(decl) => match decl.variable_list().as_ref() {
-            [declaration] => {
-                if declaration.init().is_some() {
-                    return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
+        ForLoopInitializer::Lexical(initializer) => {
+            match initializer.declaration().variable_list().as_ref() {
+                [decl] => {
+                    if decl.init().is_some() {
+                        return Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
                         format!("a lexical declaration in the head of a {loop_type} loop can't have an initializer")
                             .into(),
                         position,
                     )));
-                }
-                Ok(match decl {
-                    ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Const(_) => {
-                        IterableLoopInitializer::Const(declaration.binding().clone())
-                    }
-                    ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Let(_) => {
-                        IterableLoopInitializer::Let(declaration.binding().clone())
                     }
-                })
+                    Ok(match initializer.declaration() {
+                        ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Const(_) => {
+                            IterableLoopInitializer::Const(decl.binding().clone())
+                        }
+                        ast::declaration::LexicalDeclaration::Let(_) => {
+                            IterableLoopInitializer::Let(decl.binding().clone())
+                        }
+                    })
+                }
+                _ => Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
+                    format!("only one variable can be declared in the head of a {loop_type} loop")
+                        .into(),
+                    position,
+                ))),
             }
-            _ => Err(Error::lex(LexError::Syntax(
-                format!("only one variable can be declared in the head of a {loop_type} loop")
-                    .into(),
-                position,
-            ))),
-        },
+        }
         ForLoopInitializer::Var(decl) => match decl.0.as_ref() {
             [declaration] => {
                 // https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-initializers-in-forin-statement-heads
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/tests/format/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/tests/format/mod.rs
index f55892f7b5..8c57395dbb 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/tests/format/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/tests/format/mod.rs
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ fn test_formatting(source: &'static str) {
     // Remove preceding newline.
 
     use crate::{Parser, Source};
+    use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
     use boa_interner::{Interner, ToInternedString};
     let source = &source[1..];
 
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@ fn test_formatting(source: &'static str) {
     let source = Source::from_bytes(source);
     let interner = &mut Interner::default();
     let result = Parser::new(source)
-        .parse_script(interner)
+        .parse_script(&Scope::new_global(), interner)
         .expect("parsing failed")
         .to_interned_string(interner);
     if scenario != result {
diff --git a/core/parser/src/parser/tests/mod.rs b/core/parser/src/parser/tests/mod.rs
index f248cbf310..f4cf4ce27b 100644
--- a/core/parser/src/parser/tests/mod.rs
+++ b/core/parser/src/parser/tests/mod.rs
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ use boa_ast::{
         ArrowFunction, FormalParameter, FormalParameterList, FormalParameterListFlags,
         FunctionBody, FunctionDeclaration,
     },
+    scope::Scope,
     statement::{If, Return},
     Expression, Script, Statement, StatementList, StatementListItem,
 };
@@ -34,11 +35,14 @@ pub(super) fn check_script_parser<L>(js: &str, expr: L, interner: &mut Interner)
 where
     L: Into<Box<[StatementListItem]>>,
 {
+    let mut script = Script::new(StatementList::from(expr.into()));
+    let scope = Scope::new_global();
+    script.analyze_scope(&scope, interner);
     assert_eq!(
         Parser::new(Source::from_bytes(js))
-            .parse_script(interner)
+            .parse_script(&Scope::new_global(), interner)
             .expect("failed to parse"),
-        Script::new(StatementList::from(expr.into()))
+        script,
     );
 }
 
@@ -46,7 +50,7 @@ where
 #[track_caller]
 pub(super) fn check_invalid_script(js: &str) {
     assert!(Parser::new(Source::from_bytes(js))
-        .parse_script(&mut Interner::default())
+        .parse_script(&Scope::new_global(), &mut Interner::default())
         .is_err());
 }
 
@@ -126,8 +130,8 @@ fn hoisting() {
                 hello.into(),
                 FormalParameterList::default(),
                 FunctionBody::new(
-                    vec![Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(Literal::from(10).into()))).into()]
-                        .into(),
+                    [Statement::Return(Return::new(Some(Literal::from(10).into()))).into()],
+                    false,
                 ),
             ))
             .into(),
@@ -508,7 +512,8 @@ fn spread_in_arrow_function() {
             None,
             params,
             FunctionBody::new(
-                vec![Statement::Expression(Expression::from(Identifier::from(b))).into()].into(),
+                [Statement::Expression(Expression::from(Identifier::from(b))).into()],
+                false,
             ),
         )))
         .into()],
diff --git a/examples/src/bin/commuter_visitor.rs b/examples/src/bin/commuter_visitor.rs
index f0040103b2..7b9e001fca 100644
--- a/examples/src/bin/commuter_visitor.rs
+++ b/examples/src/bin/commuter_visitor.rs
@@ -63,7 +63,8 @@ fn main() {
     let mut parser = Parser::new(Source::from_filepath(Path::new("./scripts/calc.js")).unwrap());
     let mut ctx = Context::default();
 
-    let mut script = parser.parse_script(ctx.interner_mut()).unwrap();
+    let scope = ctx.realm().scope().clone();
+    let mut script = parser.parse_script(&scope, ctx.interner_mut()).unwrap();
 
     let mut visitor = CommutorVisitor::default();
 
diff --git a/examples/src/bin/symbol_visitor.rs b/examples/src/bin/symbol_visitor.rs
index 76086db169..3d33bb421a 100644
--- a/examples/src/bin/symbol_visitor.rs
+++ b/examples/src/bin/symbol_visitor.rs
@@ -27,7 +27,8 @@ fn main() {
     let mut parser = Parser::new(Source::from_filepath(Path::new("./scripts/calc.js")).unwrap());
     let mut ctx = Context::default();
 
-    let script = parser.parse_script(ctx.interner_mut()).unwrap();
+    let scope = ctx.realm().scope().clone();
+    let script = parser.parse_script(&scope, ctx.interner_mut()).unwrap();
 
     let mut visitor = SymbolVisitor::default();
 
diff --git a/tests/fuzz/fuzz_targets/parser-idempotency.rs b/tests/fuzz/fuzz_targets/parser-idempotency.rs
index af9f2bf15c..ab4196eea0 100644
--- a/tests/fuzz/fuzz_targets/parser-idempotency.rs
+++ b/tests/fuzz/fuzz_targets/parser-idempotency.rs
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 mod common;
 
 use crate::common::FuzzData;
+use boa_ast::scope::Scope;
 use boa_interner::ToInternedString;
 use boa_parser::{Parser, Source};
 use libfuzzer_sys::{fuzz_target, Corpus};
@@ -15,11 +16,11 @@ fn do_fuzz(mut data: FuzzData) -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
     let original = data.ast.to_interned_string(&data.interner);
 
     let mut parser = Parser::new(Source::from_reader(Cursor::new(&original), None));
-
+    let scope = Scope::new_global();
     let before = data.interner.len();
     // For a variety of reasons, we may not actually produce valid code here (e.g., nameless function).
     // Fail fast and only make the next checks if we were valid.
-    if let Ok(first) = parser.parse_script(&mut data.interner) {
+    if let Ok(first) = parser.parse_script(&scope, &mut data.interner) {
         let after_first = data.interner.len();
         let first_interned = first.to_interned_string(&data.interner);
 
@@ -33,10 +34,11 @@ fn do_fuzz(mut data: FuzzData) -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
             first
         );
         let mut parser = Parser::new(Source::from_reader(Cursor::new(&first_interned), None));
+        let second_scope = Scope::new_global();
 
         // Now, we most assuredly should produce valid code. It has already gone through a first pass.
         let second = parser
-            .parse_script(&mut data.interner)
+            .parse_script(&second_scope, &mut data.interner)
             .expect("Could not parse the first-pass interned copy.");
         let second_interned = second.to_interned_string(&data.interner);
         let after_second = data.interner.len();